 |
InspectAPedia® |
InspectAPedia
|
Free Encyclopedia of Building & Environmental Inspection, Testing, Diagnosis, Repair | Ask a Question or Search InspectAPedia |
How old is my house? This article provides a photo guide to determining the age of a building by examination of the architectural style of construction or the building materials and components that were used in the structure. Here we list some helpful clues to answer the question "how old is the house?" and we provide photographs of key visual clues useful for determining the age of a building. Readers should also see ARCHITECTURE & BUILDING COMPONENT ID where we aid in identification of building architecture, components, and styles, many of which also can help date the era of construction of a building. The age of a building can be determined quite accurately by documentation, but when documents are not readily available, visual clues such as those available during a professional home inspection can still determine when a house was built by examining its components, building materials, even nails, fasteners, and types of saw cuts on lumber. Our page top photo shows a Mid-Victorian multi-floor structure built in Hudson, NY, USA ca 1874. The entire building exterior facade is made of cast iron, including the window parapets and sills and the faux stone exterior walls and corner quoins. Green links show where you are. © Copyright 2013 InspectAPedia.com, All Rights Reserved. Author Daniel Friedman. How to Determine The age of a building - A List of Visual and Documentary Clues Provided by a Home InspectionVisual clues pointed out by a home inspector or available to any careful building inspector can help indicate the age of a building. Clues to building age include these examples which we expand and detail in text and articles below and listed at the left of this page. 
Keep in mind that even when we can identify specific types of building materials and building methods, precise dating of the time of construction of a building remains difficult: old building materials were often re-used, so beams, siding, and other components may appear in a building built later than when the materials were first made. Also, in the U.S. various states had machines for making cut nails, screws, and sawmills at different times. For example, New York State was industrialized earlier than some western or southern states, so machine-made nails appear earlier in New York than elsewhere. Frequently Asked Questions (FAQs) about how to determine the age of a house or its components or systems... Ask a Question or Search InspectApediaUse the search box below to ask a question or to search the InspectApedia.com website. Ask a Question or Enter Search Terms in the InspectApedia search box just below. Technical Reviewers & ReferencesRelated Topics, found near the top of this page suggest articles closely related to this one.
Photo Examples of Architecture & Style Providing Typical Dates of Construction
Guide to Using Building Records to Help Determine the Age of a BuildingThis article explains and list examples of source of public records that can help determine the age of a building. Because the office where building records are held will vary by name and municipal authority, the exact name and location of building records in your community will vary from those examples shown here.
| ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Carson, Dunlop & Associates Ltd.,
Here is a photograph of an unlined single wythe brick chimney on an 1856 home in New York State. The location, size, shape, building materials, and use of chimneys on buildings offer good details aiding in estimating the age of a building. These details can also indicate where additional safety inspections or perhaps repairs or updating are needed for safe use of a chimney, fireplace, building heating system, or wood stove. Chimney materials vary among none (a hole in a roof), brick, stone, masonry block,
metal flues, insulated metal chimney flues, and wood-framed metal flues on buildings. Three different colonial era homes were common in America. Early homes of one room included a chimney at one end. Second were homes that had a chimney at either end, consisting of two rooms with (or without) an entry between them. The third group used a central chimney placed between the two rooms and provided a fireplace in each room. Earliest of these homes were only one-room deep; later they grew to two rooms deep. -- Isham. |
Electrical Components as Indicators of Building Age
Here is a photograph of an obsolete 30-Amp electrical meter and fuse panel, ca 1935. While varying somewhat by area of the country in the U.S., Latin America, Europe, and other areas, there are recognizable generations of electrical wiring ( knob and tube, greenfield, armored cable or " BX" wiring, plastic or " NM/NMC" wiring), wiring materials (copper, tinned copper, aluminum, copper-plated aluminum), and also, easily recognized generations of electrical meters and electrical service panels. Here we illustrate various of these materials and products and we provide information about their safety or about the need to inspect or perhaps replace or upgrade certain problem equipment. See: |
- Aluminum wiring, although it may have made earlier appearances, was used extensively in new construction in North America from about 1967 to 1975, probably in response to a spike in copper prices, and ending as the fire hazards of aluminum wiring became widely known. Presently solid conductor aluminum wiring is not used in new construction but multi-strand aluminum wiring is still in use for service entry cables and single-appliance high-amperage circuits such as air conditioners and electric ranges. (Overheating and connection failures occur with multi-stranded aluminum wiring too.)
- Armored Cable - BX, metallic-sheathed electrical cable was first introduced in 1896 and continues in use in modernized form (with better conductor insulators) today. The earliest armored cable wiring used only paper inside of the insulating steel jacket, a material that failed when the wire was wet or was flexed excessively. Later generations of armored cable used rubber-insulated and fabric covered conductors. We find lots of rubber-insulated armored electrical cables in U.S. homes dating between 1920 and around 1940. Beware of this older armored cable: often the conductor insulation is deteriorated and unsafe, particularly close to electrical lights and other connections where heat may have been present. We've successfully repaired and kept such circuits in use by cutting back the damaged overheated length of wire. Modern BX wiring uses plastic insulated conductors and is available in a variety of wire gauge s and number of conductors.
- Electrical receptacles and device power cord plugs have varied in design and features over the history of electrical wiring;
- Un-polarized electrical receptacles: Early electrical receptacles were (and are) usually two-prong, with each receptacle slot of equal size, and with no ground connection for the power cord that is plugged into the receptacle
- Polarized electrical receptacles: Electrical receptacles were changed to require proper polarity of electrical connection between the receptacle and the connecting appliance or device cord by making one of the receptacle slots wider and the corresponding power cord plug spade wider than the other. These un-grounded (or unearthed) electrical receptacles (some people call them electrical sockets or wall plugs) are still in use and should still be installed if the electrical circuit to which they are connected does not provide a ground path.
- Grounded electrical receptacles: Most modern electrical receptacles (power outlets, wall sockets, wall plugs) provide a combination of polarized connectors (one slot wider than the other) and a ground connection (the rounded opening below the center of the two spade connectors). The most common electrical receptacle used in homes in the Americas, Japan, and some other countries is the 15 Amp (#14 copper wire circuit) receptacle described as NEMA 5-15 15 A/125V electrical outlets. If the receptacle is properly installed with the ground connection "down", the wider slot on the left accepts the neutral connection of the power cord and the more narrow slot accepts the "hot" connection of the power cord.
Beginning with the U.S. 1992 electrical code, special versions of grounded electrical receptacles may shift the pattern of the spade connector slots to provide receptacles that accept both 15A and 20A power cords and others which rotate one of the spade connectors to 90 degrees from the other, to accept only 20A power cords. - European electrical receptacles in modern form (2008) use the CEE 7/16 electrical socket and matching wall plug with openings 19 mm apart and 4 mm in diameter, and that usually does not include a ground connection.That's because european residential electrical circuits are designed for 240-volt circuits (both wires to the receptacle are "hot" and the power cord plug can be inserted in either position. These receptacles are designed for 2.5A/240V circuits with no ground path. A grounded version of this wall receptacle is used in the U.K. (BS 4573) and is called the UK "Shaver" receptacle.
- European electrical receptacles of an older design and still found in many buildings in the U.K. and India use a three prong 5-amp 240V BS 546 plug (one is for ground) or a higher capacity BS-546 "M" receptacle rated for 15 amps. The older British 3-pin 13-Amp line cord plug and matching wall receptacle (BS 1363) first saw use after WW II in 1946 and is still found in the UK and some other countries and has two flat 240V pins and a single vertical ground pin connector.
- Different electrical receptacles and line cord connectors are used in France (Type E -pin with a female connection to ground (earth) on the line cord plug and a protruding ground pin on the wall receptacle, and in Germany and Russia (Type F two pin with a ground connection provided by a metallic clip below the hot pin connections and at the edge of the line cord plug and electrical receptacle socket. CF: Wikipedia for a nice detailed article describing these connectors.
- Electrical Wiring in Old Houses discusses the inspection and repair of old house electrical systems including wiring and other devices
- Federal Pacific Stab-Lok electric panels discusses these latent safety hazards in homes and provides a very detailed history of this product
- First generation electrical wiring, including from Thomas Edison's D.C. electricity era, used a pair of physically separated copper electrical conductors insulated with cloth and stapled to building framing. Where this wiring was to be exposed to moisture its cloth covering was sealed with tar or similar bituminous compounds and buried in a wooden trough according to a Wikipedia entry. It is unlikely that you'll find this wiring in active use, but if you do, it's dangerous and should be replaced.
- Gas piping used to route electrical wires: often in older homes when gas service was discontinued the gas pipes were used to route electrical wires through building walls, particularly when the occupants wanted to install an electric light where a gas light had previously been found. But don't assume all gas piping in an old house has been abandoned - it may still be "live", as we discuss at Gas Lighting Pipes & Fixtures
- KNOB & TUBE WIRING details this electrical wiring system, and also see other old house electrical wiring and its history that are provided here. Knob and tube wiring is probably the oldest electrical wiring style that was applied with any standard consistency, and was used from 1880 right up into the 1970's in some jurisdictions, though it fell from widespread use by 1940 when less costly insulated electrical cables increased in popularity.
- Plastic Cable - "Romex" was introduced in the U.S. in 1950 with a PVC insulating jacket according to a Wikipedia entry.
- Rubber-insulated electrical cables were introduced in 1922 and contained two electrical conductors insulated with a rubber coating and wrapped with an asphalt-like impregnated cloth. Some inspectors refer to this as "cloth" or "fabric" wrapped electrical wiring but it's not, it's rubber-insulated.
- Wooden floor baseboard trim and other wood molding trims in older homes were often routed on their back side in order to run electrical wires. Be careful in driving nails through wood baseboards before you know if wires are present.
- Zinsco/Sylvania electrical panels discusses these latent safety hazards in homes
Flooring Materials as Indicators of Building Age
Please see our full-text articles on types and eras of use of various building flooring materials found in the articles listed under: FLOORING MATERIALS, Age, Types
Abbreviated comments on some flooring types are also found just below. In some cases, floor covering such as carpets and tiles have been in use for thousands of years. If we comment on these materials it is to identify certain modern variations such as ceramic bath or wall tiles that are purchased pre-glued to a mesh backer to speed tile placement. But in general we focus on flooring materials that have special properties, ability to date the era of their use, or environmental concerns.
Various types of flooring and the inspection, diagnosis, and repair of flooring defects are discussed at FLOOR TYPES & DEFECTS. Types of building flooring that contain asbestos, a health and environmental concern, are discussed in detail at ASBESTOS FLOOR TILE IDENTIFICATION.
List & History Resilient Floor Coverings Used in buildings
Resilient floor coverings include organic flooring materials such as asphalt tile, cork tile, linoleum, rubber flooring, vinyl tile, vinyl sheet flooring.
Asphalt Tile Flooring as an Indicator of Building Age - 1920 - 1960 (est)
|
The material did not perform acceptably as a roof covering, but it led to the development of asphalt floor tiles. Asphalt floor tiles are 9" square (or other sized) tiles which used asphalt as the main binding material. the original asphalt tiles were produced only in dark colors because asphalt was a main ingredient. Rosato indicates that the first publicized asphalt tile installation was in 1920 in New York City's Western Union office. The product was very successful and by 1936 over four million square yards of asphalt floor tiles were being sold annually. By 1940, 5% of floor coverings sold in the U.S. were asphalt tile. -- Rosato |
If you encounter black or very dark asphalt floor tiles they are probably very high in asbestos fibers. We discuss floor tiles as an asbestos fiber source in buildings in more detail at ASBESTOS FLOOR TILE IDENTIFICATION.
Cork Flooring Tiles as an Indicator of Building Age -
Cork floor tiles were considered a warm, quiet, but less durable resilient floor covering than some of its competitors. It was sold often for use in residential dens, family rooms, or other warm, low-traffic areas, and it may have been popular (research needed) for use in areas where workers had to spend long periods standing - where it would have competed with rubber floor coverings. In 1952 cork flooring sales made up 2% of total floor tile sales. -- Rosato p88.
Vinyl Asbestos Floor Tiles as an Indicator of Building Age - 1930 - 1976 (est)
|
Asphalt-based flooring as it was originally produced used heavy asphalt products which meant that the floor tiles could be made in dark colors only. Soon after asphalt-asbestos floor tiles were marketed manufacturers heard from their buyers that consumers wanted lighter floor tiles and tiles of varying color and pattern. Organic resin vinyl increased in popularity for this reason, but slowly. By 1952, the production of vinyl plastic floor tile sales in the U.S. was about half the volume of asphalt floor tiles, selling 35 million square yards. Microphotographs of vinyl-asbestos floor tiles can be seen at our article at ASBESTOS FLOOR TILE IDENTIFICATION. -- Rosato |
Sheet Flooring Materials That Indicate Age of a Building
Here is a photograph of an early (pre-vinyl) continuous floor covering, ca 1900, in an 1840 historic Vermont house. Note the fabric backing of the flooring material. This article explains various common flooring materials (rough wood, finished wood, parquet, carpeting, linocrusta, sheet vinyl, and other items as they assist in determining The age of a building or other building. |
Linoleum Sheet Flooring As an Indicator of Building Age - 1890 - 1960 (est)
According to Rosato, "The original resilient floor coverings were developed during the latter part of the Nineteenth Century by Frederick Walton. The original covering was linoleum for use as a floor decking on British naval ships." The composition of the original products included asphaltic binders to which an asbestos filler was added by mixing on a rubber mill.
List of Non-Resilient Floor Coverings Used in buildings
Non-resilient floor coverings used in buildings that can assist in determining the age of a structure include bamboo, brick, concrete, stone, and a wide variety of wood products.
Determining the Age of buildings Using Laminate Flooring Products
|
Sadly the laminate floor shown at left was ruined by a building flood. Pergo™ laminate flooring, for example, was developed by Pergo AB, a Swedish company founded around 1890 as a vinegar manufacturer. Product development for Pergo laminate flooring began in 1977 and was first brought to the market in 1984. Pergo laminate flooring was first sold in the U.S. in 1994. |
Foundation Materials as Indicators of Building Age
Foundation materials commonly used for buildings include:
|
Photograph of a buckling, damaged stone foundation on an 1864 structure in Rhinebeck, NY. In evaluating the probable age of a home when inspecting its foundation, we consider the foundation materials and style of workmanship. A building's foundation materials and style of construction, stone, wood, brick, masonry block (at least two different generations), and poured concrete (various generations and methods including hand-built and by machine and pumper truck) can give considerable information about the foundation age. On occasion we'll find a very old structure which has been moved and re-set on a new concrete or concrete block foundation, adding more historical information to the home. All of the common building foundation materials, how they fail, how they are inspected, are discussed at The Foundation Crack Bible. |
Framing Materials as Indicators of Building Age
- Logs, various sizes, chopped, dried, assembled at the building site
- Hand hewn beams, chopped and then sized with an adze and axe. Adze cuts and axe cuts are normally visible in the rough surface of hand hewn wood structural beams.
- Full-sized 2"x4" (or larger 2 x n") wood framing materials
- Modern wood framing wall studs 2x4's (3.5" x 1/5") and larger members (x" deep by 1.5" thick)
- Glulam beams; large timbers are built-up of laminated wood strips
- Tongue and groove wood subflooring, wall sheathing, roof sheathing
- Plywood subfloors, wall sheathing, roof sheathing
- Oriented-strand board subflooring, wall sheathing, roof sheathing - see OSB
|
The observation of framing materials, framing markings, and framing styles provides considerable information about the probable age of a house. We discuss framing materials and styles here as an aid to house age determination. Also see our article on " Saw Cuts and Tool Marks" (links at Related Topics ). Log framing and both modern and antique log construction are discussed at Log Home Guide. Antique and modern trusses are distinguished and modern laminated beams and I-truss beams and wood joists are discussed. |
Framing Methods as Indicators of Building Age
Common wood structure framing methods include the techniques described below, arranged alphabetically, not by age.
For the full text articles on this topic please see
Below we provide abbreviated discussion taken from the full-text articles listed above.
Arkansas framing system: 2x6 wall studs are spaced 24' on center, a spacing that permitted installation of more wall insulation volume than provide by conventional 2x4 wall studs.
The Arkansas building framing method became popular in North America following the 1970's arab oil embargo and addressed concern for high energy costs.
Balloon Framing Construction Method Description
For full details see our full text article at FRAMING METHODS, Age, Types and Balloon Framing
Tall wall studs run from the sill plate atop the foundation wall to the top plate below the building rafters. Wall studs and first floor joists rest on the building sill plates (flat wood members set atop the building foundation). The wall studs extend from the first floor sill to a height sufficient to frame both the first and second floor walls.
First floor joists and second floor joists are framed by nailing to these tall wall studs at the appropriate heights. Rafters attach to the top plate of the building walls. Ceiling joists for the top floor are nailed to the sides of the balloon-framed wall studs just as the floor joists were nailed below.
Glulam Beam Construction, Description, History
(In process, contributions invited). For full details see our full text article at FRAMING METHODS, Age, Types and Glulam Beams
Log Home Construction Methods Defined & Described
For full details see our full text article at FRAMING METHODS, Age, Types and
Log Home Construction
(1640 - est U.S.): solid logs usually felled and prepared at or close to the building site, set on ground level, on flat stones on ground, or on a stone foundation, corners joined using various notch and overlap methods. See Log Home Guide.
Modular Construction Methods Defined & Described
For full details see our full text article at FRAMING METHODS, Age, Types and Modular Construction
|
Modular construction (1910 - present) was first provided on a large scale with Sears Kit homes that were distributed from about 1910 to 194o0 - see How to Identify Sears Kit Houses. Some modern modular homes built in the U.S. during the 1950's post war building boom originally enjoyed a less than stellar reputation several decades ago, having the reputation of flimsy construction. That is no longer the case. Since at least the 1980's a modular home is constructed in a factory of one or more sections which are carried to the building site on a trailer (photo above left) and lifted by a crane to be set upon a foundation which has been prepared ahead of time. Modular homes can be quite large, involving four or quite a few more individual sections which are lifted and "set" into place at the site (photo at left) Some manufacturers provide custom architectural services and can deliver unique, but factory-built homes in sections. Contemporary modular construction of homes have these attributes: |
OSB - Oriented Strand Board Used in Building Construction, History, Description, Identification
For full details see our full text article at FRAMING METHODS, Age, Types and OSB
(In process, contributions invited.)
Panelized Building Construction Defined & Described
For full details see our full text article at FRAMING METHODS, Age, Types and Panelized Construction
Panelized construction: floor and wall panels constructed in a factory are delivered to and assembled at the building site. Panels may be conventionally-framed stud walls in modular sections or structural panels may be constructed of a sandwich of OSB (oriented strand board), plywood, or wafer board on either side of solid foam board insulation.
Panelized construction makes use of wall, floor, ceiling or roof "panels" which have been framed off-site and brought to the site by truck. Panels are lifted into place by crane and fastened together on a foundation, and possibly a framed-in floor which have been prepared before the panels arrive.
Some framing panels make use of special materials, such as plywood and foam roof panels for insulated cathedral ceilings.
(In process, contributions invited).
Plank House or Box Construction Method Defined & Described
For full details see our full text article at FRAMING METHODS, Age, Types and Plank Houses
1880 - 1920 estimated, with some plank house construction continuing up to possibly 1950. Plank houses were constructed entirely of sawn planks and without the use of larger dimensioned 2x lumber. Some of the plank houses we've inspected were made from scraps or salvaged lumber such as a home in Dutchess County New York that was constructed from packing crate wood. Larger collections of plank houses were built as company housing in the mining or railroad industries.
(In process, contributions invited).
Platform Framing Construction Method Defined & Described
For full details see our full text article at FRAMING METHODS, Age, Types and Platform Framing
The platform frame construction method, also called western construction is the most-common residential wood structure framing method in North America. A floor is constructed atop of the building foundation, forming the first "platform", using the platform as a working surface.
Plywood Used in Building Construction, History, Description, Identification
For full details see our full text article at FRAMING METHODS, Age, Types and Plywood. Also see FIRE RETARDANT PLYWOOD.
Plywood (1905 - present as a construction material in North America) is sheet material made of thin veneers of wood that are laid with wood grains in alternating direction, glued, heated, and pressed together. Interior plywood is generally glued with urea formaldehyde based glues; exterior plywood and marine plywood use phenolic formaldehyde glues and are water resistant.
The cross-grain construction combined with glue produces a strong, uniform material that is used for both enclosure and for structural stiffness in frame construction of building walls and roofs. The properties of plywood, including its tolerance to weather exposure (marine plywood) depend on the glues and finishes used. Both softwood and hardwoods are used in plywoods, and fine wood veneer finishes are also available (for furniture use).
Also see Oriented-strand board subflooring, wall sheathing, roof sheathing - at OSB
Post & Beam Construction Method Defined & Described
For full details see our full text article at FRAMING METHODS, Age, Types and Post & Beam Construction
|
Post and beam construction (1700 - est. in North America): (timber framing) uses horizontal and vertical timbers that are connected (joined) using mortise and tenon joints pinned with wood pegs (treenails). Timber frame construction initially used hand hewn beams, later manually or mechanically sawn beams cut by a pit saw.; Later timber frame beams were sawn in mills using circular saws. Timber framing using post and beam construction with mortise and tenon joint connections was used in Europe for at least 500 years before it was first employed in North America. By 1650 a typical timber frame building used multiple bents and girt beams, may have been more than one story tall, and included an exterior made of horsehair-reinforced cement stuccoed over hand-split lath. Our photo (above) shows an 18th century Norwegian timber frame building using brick infill and stucco to complete the wall enclosure. |
Welded Wire Sandwich Framing Panelized Construction
Welded-wire sandwich framing panels: polystyrene or polyurethane foam core insulation is surrounded by a welded-wire space frame.\
For full details see our full text article at FRAMING METHODS, Age, Types and Welded Wire Sandwich Framing
Wood Framing Spacing & Framing Member Actual Dimensions can indicate building age
For full details see our full text article at FRAMING SIZE & Spacing, Age, Types
- non-standard wood framing spacings, typically in post and beam or hewn beam frame construction
- 14" spaced wooden stud framing - early balloon framing
- 24" spaced wood stud and wood rafter framing, based on a 24" module - all framing, wall studs, floor joists, roof rafters are spaced 24 inches on center. See Arkansas framing above.
- 16" spaced wooden wall stud and wooden roof rafter or wood roof joist framing
Heating Equipment as Indicators of Building Age
Indoor heating methods by historic periods or years:
- Central fireplaces, no chimneys
- Indoor fireplaces, chimney in building or on exterior building wall
- Free-standing wood-burning stoves, the Franklin Stove
- Coal burning free-standing stoves;
- Kerosene stoves
- Coal fired octopus furnaces and steam boilers
- Oil burners: different types of oil burners, coal conversions, low speed, high speed, high efficiency
- Oil-fired furnaces, hydronic (hot water) boilers, steam boilers
- Gas-fired furnaces, boilers, steam boilers - see AGE of HEATERS, BOILERS, FURNACES - AGE of heating equipment, boilers, furnaces by decoding data tags
- Electric furnaces and heating boilers
- Geothermal hot water heating systems (Iceland)
- Heat pumps - see AGE of AIR CONDITIONERS & HEAT PUMPS - how to read data tags to decode the age
|
These octopus furnaces, also called "gravity heating systems" provided heat by natural convection, hot air rising into the building from the top of the furnace where it was delivered to the building first floor through a wood or iron grate, or perhaps delivered through metal ducts. The original installation usually supplied heat to a home through a
central grate in the first floor of the building from where warm air might rise
to upper floors. Later versions or modified original systems
added ducts to individual rooms, sometimes still only on the first floor of the building.
These furnaces are the ancestor of modern forced hot air heating systems. |
Insulation Materials as Indicators of Building Age
Insulation materials used in buildings includes:
- Nothing - no insulation - solid log walls, solid stone walls, providing thermal mass. Chinking or other methods used to reduce air leakage were the principal energy savings or comfort detail applied; adobe and concrete construction.
- Air - open cavities in wood framed walls; a small 1" air gap is also found in older structural brick walls; the air gap in brick walls was intended to avoid transmission of moisture from outside the building to its interior.
- Silage or corncobs used as wall insulation
- Paper, newspaper, rags used as wall insulation
- Brick, masonry, as wall cavity fillers to block air leaks and provide thermal mass - see brick-lined walls as building insulation
- Cotton building insulation batts - see cotton building insulation
- Perlite building insulation - see perlite building insulation
- Asbestos used as insulation in buildings, generally on heating pipes (corrugated asbestos paper lengths wrapped around pipes, asbestos paste at elbows and on boiler exteriors, asbestos paper on heating duct exteriors); asbestos was not normally used as a fill material for the insulation of building cavities though we have encountered it in rare cases. See asbestos insulation.
- Rock wool or mineral wool used as building wall or ceiling insulation - see rock wool insulation
- Paper or foil air and heat reflective barriers used as ceiling or wall insulation in buildings
- Fiberglass batts used as building insulation - see fiberglass insulation
- Chopped, fire-retardant cellulose (newsprint) building insulation - see cellulose building insulation
- Chopped fiberglass building insulation
- UFFI urea formaldehyde foam insulation used as building insulation - see foam spray building insulation
- Foam board building insulation products: styrofoam board insulation, other foam insulating board products, paper faced and foil faced insulating boards - see foam board building insulation
- Insulated building panels, a wood "sandwich" of solid foam board and plywood, used primarily on building roofs
- Icynene® foam building insulation
- Latex foam building insulation and other foam insulation products
See Insulation Material Identification Guide for a catalog of building insulation materials and how to identify them.
|
At Insulation Material Identification Guide we discuss various types of insulation materials (none, air gaps, brick and brick-lined walls, cellulose, cotton, corn or corn husks, hay bales (including hay bale or straw construction), straw, newspaper, rock wool insulation or mineral wool, fiberglass insulation of various colors (brands), types (batts,chopped, etc), perlite building insulation, asbestos insulation and fire barriers, UFFI and other more modern foam board and foam spray insulation materials, and the use of radiant barriers) and their common eras of usage as an aid to determining the age and history of a building. Health and environmental concerns and insulation effectiveness are also
addressed such as mold in fiberglass insulation and fiberglass fragments in air from various sources in buildings. |
|
See Insulation Material Identification Guide for a catalog of building insulation materials and how to identify them. Our photo at left shows a pre-1900 brick wall lining used as insulation and as a wind or draft block. Brick nogging can determine the probable age for the home. Houses built between 1810 and 1900, or perhaps earlier may have brick-lined walls. I have found brick nogging in the walls of a 1790 Poughkeepsie NY home. Bricks lining the walls of a home is an indicator of when it was built. See Brick Lined Walls for a detailed, illustrated article about the use, detection, and inspection of brick lined walls in older homes were we describe and explain the reasons for and concerns with brick wall lining or "insulation" sometimes called nogging. |
Guide to Nails and Hardware as Indicators of Building Age
|
Tremont Nail Company continues to manufacture reproduction nails which in appearance are quite like those made by hand more than 100 years ago. Tremont supplies restoration contractors and others working on historic buildings and for historians, Tremont offers a reference set of old fasteners. (See Tremont at "More Reading" below.) Shown is Tremont's standard Clout Nail:
Similar in design to Shingle Nails, but made from lighter gauge steel.
this nail was (and is) used for the application of thin siding and paneling.
It was and is also used for furniture repair, cabinet work, batten doors and counter tops.
(Photo courtesy Tremont Nail Company). |
Window Latches, Fasteners, Tracks, Window Weights, and Window Components as Indicators of Building Age
The window latch shown in our photo (left) dates from the 1840 Justin Morrill Smith Historic house in Vermont.
(Photos of various window hardware components wanted. Contact Us)
Guide to Plaster & Drywall & Other Interior Wall Coverings as Indicators of Building Age
Please see Plaster & Beaverboard & Drywall we describe and discuss the identification and history of older interior building surface materials such plaster and lath, Beaverboard, and Drywall - materials that were used to form the (usually) non-structural surface of building interior ceilings and walls.
Readers should see Sheathing Celotex Homasote & Other for a discussion of exterior wall sheathing fiberboard products such as Homasote® and Celotex® insulating roof, wall, and foundation board products.
A quick review and description of these materials is provided just below.
History of Plaster, Plasterboard, Drywall, Wood Lath, Metal Lath
|
There are several generations of plaster and lath, plaster board, and drywall which have been used in buildings. We name and illustrate these and discuss their periods of use below as an aid in finding out how old a building is and tracing its history. Examples:
|
History of the Use of Wood and other Wall Paneling in North America
Wooden wall paneling - tongue and groove pine and other woods
in process
Wall paneling in 4' x 8' sheets
in process
Early colonial paneling is described by Isham.
History of Beaver Board & Upson Board Wall Coverings in North America
Details about Beaver-board and Upson Board, a wood fiber product used as an inexpensive interior wall covering and draft blocker from about 1903 are provided at Plaster & Beaverboard & Drywall.
Our photographs (below) show this product from it's back or wall cavity side. On the exposed side this wood fiberboard product was usually painted and its joints covered with wood lath or other trim. In some applications it was covered with wallpaper. In some homes it was later covered with drywall to provide a more fire-resistant surface.
|
|
Beaverboard takes its name from the Beaver N.Y. and the Beaver Board Companies that produced this product until that firm was purchased by Certain Teed Prod cuts in 1928. Beaver Board and Upson Board were produced by the Beaver Wood Fibre Company Limited, in Thorold, Ontario.
Beaver board's competition was from Upson Processed board (John Upson, Upson Company, Lockport, NY) which was produced beginning in 1910. As late as the 1950's Upson Board was used in prefabricated houses and exterior building sheathing and in recreational vehicles. Upson purchased the Beaver Board plant from CertainTeed in 1955. Upson began its decline in the 1970's and closed in 1984, opening later that year as Niagara Fiberboard.
Guide to Plumbing Materials & Fixtures as Indicators of Building Age
Please see AGE of PLUMBING MATERIALS & FIXTURES for our detailed article on determining the age and life expectancy of plumbing components.
|
Photograph of an active gaslight found in a 1900 home in New York. Often old gas lines have been disconnected entirely and sometimes they have been re-used to route electrical wiring to new light fixtures or to gaslight fixtures which have been converted to electric. Don't assume that an old gas fixture or valve on a wall or found in a fireplace are inactive. We turned-on and lit this fixture which gave a bright surprise to everyone. |
Chart of Dates When Different Types of Plumbing Were Used in Homes
|
Plumbing fixtures and piping materials offer considerable age in dating a building, including easy clues such as the presence of a date of manufacture stamped into many toilet tanks to the periods of use of types of water supply piping (lead, galvanized steel, black iron pipe, copper, plastic piping) and building drain piping (lead, cast iron, copper, plastic, clay). Often on older buildings multiple types of piping will be present as repairs and changes have been made in the building plumbing system. Chart of plumbing types and years of use courtesy of Carson Dunlop |
Please see AGE of PLUMBING MATERIALS & FIXTURES for our detailed article on determining the age and life expectancy of plumbing components.
Roofing Materials as Indicators of Building Age
|
But an inspection of interior and exterior roofing details can indicate the probable age of a wood roof (which can last up to 40 years) as well as the roofing history of the building, the number and types of roofing layers, and related house-age-determination details. The wood shingle roof shown in the photo below is on a building in Key West, Florida,
adjacent to the Hemingway house, viewed from the Key West tower. Notice the absence of lichens on the
wood shingles in the roof area below the metal-flashed rooftop tower? |
History and Dates of Use of Various Roofing Materials
(in process)
This article explains the eras of use of different types of roofing materials as an aid to understanding the history and age of buildings. If you are trying to determine the age and condition of a particular roof covering, please see Roofing.
- Asbestos fiber and asbestos cement roofing: see ASBESTOS CEMENT ROOFING
- Asphalt roofing shingles: see ASPHALT ROOF SHINGLES
- Asphalt roll roofing:
- Built-up roofing:
- CLAY TILE ROOFING
Clay Roofing Tile Types
Clay Roof Tile Installation Specs
Clay Roof Tile Connections
CLAY TILE ROOF DAMAGE & WEAR - MASONITE WOODRUF FIBERBOARD ROOFING
- Metal roofing and roof types:
- Modified bitumen roofing:
- Rubber and synthetic roof coverings:
- Slate roofing materials: see SLATE ROOF INSPECTION & REPAIR
- SOD ROOFING
- STONE ROOFING
- THATCH ROOFING
- WOOD SHAKE & SHINGLE ROOFING
- Wood Shingles
Cement Board & Fiber Cement Building Products
Asbestos-Cement Board & Fiberboard Products
Exterior Siding & Roofing Using Asbestos Cement included asbestos cement shingles, asbestos cement siding, corrugated asbestos-cement roofing.
See Asbestos Roofing Materials and ASBESTOS CEMENT SIDING
Other fiber cement materials used in construction included
TRANSITE PIPE AIR DUCTS
Transite Pipe Chimneys & Flues
Transite Pipe Water Supply Piping
Also see ASBESTOS IDENTIFICATION IN buildings and see SIDING MATERIALS, Age, Types
Modern Cement Board & Fiber Cement Products
Cement board is a non-structural building sheathing material which in its contemporary form is made from Portland cement covered with a reinforced fiberglass mesh fabric. Cement board is used as a tile backer or a backer board for stucco applications on buildings. Current producers include Custom Building Products (WonderBoard™) and US Gypsum (Durock™).
Panels made of a mixture of cement and wood fibers are produced for building siding by James Hardi (Hardi-panel and Cemplank™), and CertainTeed (Weatherboard™).
(History & dates in process, contributions invited - CONTACT us)
Saw Cuts, Tool Marks as Indicators of Building Age
Generations of types of saws used in cutting beams, and similar
details are readily available on many buildings and offer both clues to building age and
wonderful aesthetic detail.
At Saw Cuts, Tool Marks, Age of, hand hewn adze marks or even the type of saw cut marks on framing lumber, in rough chronological order, we illustrate different types of saw and tool cut marks in wood: adze cuts, hand sawn pit saw marks, mechanically-operated pit saw marks, circular saw marks, and unmarked, planed modern dimensional lumber.
An excerpt from that article is our photo at left and this explanation: An understanding of how hand-hewn beams were cut, for example, can permit the careful observer to not only recognize the type and age of building framing, but even to understand just where the worker was standing when a blow from a tool was delivered to a building framing member.
Adze cuts to hew a rectangular beam out of a round log were made in two steps: an adze, a hoe-like cutting tool with wooden offset handle was used to make a series of cuts along the round up-facing surface of a log.
Sears Kit Houses as Indicators of Building Age
For details, photographs, books, and references on how to identify Sears Kit Homes see Sears Houses: How to identify Sears catalog kit houses photos and tips for identifying these interesting homes.
For information about the age, history, and use of pre-cut lumber in wood-frame construction, see Pre-Cut Lumber Construction
|
Other kit homes were sold by Montgomery Ward and by a few other manufacturers
including copies of some of the popular Sears and Roebuck houses that continued to be sold after Sears had
discontinued their production. |
A photograph of stencil numbers on wood framing shown here confirms that this building was a Sears Kit House whose
model and probable age we can determine.Siding Materials as Indicators of Building Age
Please see our detailed article on types of siding and how siding materials are inspected, installed, diagnosed, repaired, at SIDING TYPES, INSTALLATION, DEFECTS
|
That is, it was a popular "no maintenance" siding material sold often as a cover-up product for older siding in poor condition. (Aluminum siding and then vinyl siding were sold both for that purpose and also as exterior wall cladding for new construction as well). See SIDING ASPHALT SHINGLE or SHEET. Asphalt siding material was made in two common versions, one much like asphalt roof shingles and the other (as in this photo) was comprised of an asphalt coating laminated to hardboard siding material. Commonly made to look like brick, it also appears in faux-stone versions (not to be mistaken for "perma stone" which has been sold since the 1960's as an exterior wall covering. It would be rare to find asphalt-based exterior siding material as original wall cladding on a building; usually it was applied over wood clapboards which in turn were badly in need of paint or repair. |
History and Dates of Use of Various Building Exterior Siding Materials
- SIDING, ASBESTOS FIBER CEMENT - Asbestos fiber & asbestos cement shingle siding: SIDING, ASBESTOS FIBER CEMENT, popularity declined with the rise in popularity of aluminum siding in the U.S. in the 1950's. See SIDING, ASBESTOS FIBER CEMENT identification, photos, replacement materials, safety recommendations, disposal issues
- SIDING, ALUMINUM - (photo of aluminum siding, 1960's, showing siding installed over peeling painted clapboard, siding backer board details). Aluminum & steel building siding - popular in the U.S. 1940's - 1970's. Because of the large amounts of energy used to produce aluminum siding and increasing raw materials costs, aluminum siding declined in popularity in the U.S. in the 1970's.
Aluminum siding, produced from aluminum coil stock and painted in a wide variety of colors, provided a durable exterior building cladding that resisted rust and rot. See SIDING, ALUMINUM for details.
Watch out: some versions of aluminum siding included a paint coating that weathered, chalked, and even washed off entirely, leaving a bare aluminum surface. With careful surface preparation and selection of a paint recommended by its manufacturer for aluminum siding, it is possible to re-paint weathered aluminum siding - of course we then have converted a "no maintenance" material into one that will require occasional repainting. - SIDING ASPHALT SHINGLE or SHEET - Asphalt shingle siding and asphalt sheet siding (photo of asphalt siding, Coolidge Hotel, White River Junction, VT). Asphalt siding: materials similar to asphalt roof shingles, used as building siding, designed to resemble brick, wood, or other materials, popular from ca 1930 - 1955. See SIDING ASPHALT SHINGLE or SHEET
- Brick building exteriors: structural brick walls & brick veneers
- Composite wood siding - Masonite, Woodruf, and other brands - see hardboard siding
- SIDING HARDBOARD - Hardboard building siding: see SIDING HARDBOARD Boise Cascade, Georgia Pacific, Masonite, etc: siding failures, inspections, class actions
- SIDING EIFS & STUCCO building wall cladding installation defects, leaks, damage, class actions - links list; Photo of EIFS
- SIDING STEEL
- Log home construction: solid log construction vs. Slab Log Cabin Siding - discussed at Log Home Guide. Also see Antique & Old Log Cabins and Vertical Log Walls on Cabins & Homes.
- Paint Failure Diagnosis - extensive library of how-to articles on diagnosing and preventing paint problems on buildings and in art conservation
- Plaster/cement horsehair lath siding
- Sawn clapboard siding - see SIDING WOOD, FAILURES OVER FOAM BOARD and also see PAINT FAILURES
- SIDING STEEL - Steel building siding was sold based on advantages similar to aluminumsiding (see Aluminum siding) but with disadvantages of heavier weight, more difficult to install (harder to cut and trim), and vulnerable torust. Steel siding was never as popular in NorthAmerica as aluminum nor its later replacement - vinyl. See SIDING STEEL
- Stucco siding on building exteriors: Horsehair mixed with plaster or cement for building exterior wall covering, also see SIDING EIFS STUCCO. and STUCCO OVER FOAM INSULATION - choices of insulation and support for stucco over foam insulation over masonry walls
- Synthetic stucco siding, EIFS wall cladding - see SIDING EIFS & STUCCO
- VAPOR BARRIERS - Vapor barriers: history of use of housewrap and vapor barriers; vapor barrier types: see VAPOR BARRIERS
- SIDING VINYL - Vinyl siding: see SIDING VINYL. PVC based vinyl siding was introduced in the U.S. in the 1950's and 60's, began to overtake aluminum siding for building exterior wall coverings in the 1970's and by the 1980's was the dominant exterior siding material on residential structures in the U.S. for both new construction and for remodeling. The cost of covering a building exterior with vinyl siding was competitive with a properly executed exterior paint job, and the result more durable. SIDING VINYL - Vinyl Siding, includes review & comments about moisture & vapor barriers. Vinyl siding is popular in part because it is lightweight and easy to work with, easy to cut, trim, and install.
Watch out: early vinyl siding suffered from weathering, cracking, impact damage, and buckling from heating. While modern vinyl siding products are very durable, impact and dent and weather resistant, the material will still buckle if it is not properly installed (nailed too tightly to the building).
Also see - SIDING WOOD, FAILURES OVER FOAM BOARD - Wood shingle siding: see SIDING WOOD, FAILURES OVER FOAM BOARD and also see PAINT FAILURES
Details of how this material deteriorates and examples of its variations are discussed below along with other exterior siding materials and their common dates of use.
Windows & Doors & Interior Hardware as Indicators of Building Age
Please see our windows and doors articles at WINDOWS & DOORS, Age, Types and also see WINDOW HARDWARE PHOTOS
Here is a photograph of an 1840 window latch on a historic landmark property, the Justin Smith Morrill Homestead in Strafford, Vermont. |
List of Online Articles Giving Detailed Information & Reference Materials for Determining the Age of buildings
- ARCHITECTURE, STYLE, & Building Age
- Chimneys & Fireplaces, Age, Types
- Chimneys, flues, wood stoves & fireplaces: chimney inspection, defects, safety concerns
- Chimneys & Flues, safety concerns, chimney inspection methods, chimney repair methods, chimney relining methods, chimney replacement, new installation alternatives; and direct-vent alternatives to chimneys for heating furnaces & boilers
- Unlined Chimney Flues: Safety Requirements old chimneys may be unsafe - photos, dangerous carbon monoxide and blocked flue case report, chimney flue standards, chimney inspection suggestions
- Chimney Safety Alert for Wood Burning Appliances - US CPSC Alert Document 5017, wood stoves, fireplace inserts
- Chimney Safety Alert for Metal Chimneys - US CPSC Alert Document 5047, metal chimneys, wood and coal stove safety
- Electrical Components, Age, Types
- Aluminum Wiring inspection, hazards, repairs
- Federal Pacific Electric FPE Stab Lok Electric Panels, circuit breakers, Siemens, Challenger
- Lightning Strike risk assessment, protection systems - on historic properties
- Rust and Corrosion in Electrical Panels, A Study and Report on Frequency and Cause for Electrical and Home Inspectors at Residential Electric Panels
- Square D Circuit Breaker Recalls, announced by the US CPSC, recalls include a Square D GFCI circuit breaker distributed by Square D, and a Counterfeit Square-D circuit breaker sold through Scott Electric
- Zinsco circuit breakers, electrical panels, etc.
- FLOORING MATERIALS, Age, Types: history of types and age of different flooring materials: Asphalt or vinyl-asbestos floor tiles, sheet flooring, linoleum, ceramic tile, carpeting, wood floor types and materials
- FOUNDATION MATERIALS, Age, Types
- Foundation Crack Bible, in-depth diagnosis, and evaluation of all types of structural and non-structural cracks in residential foundations [Brick, Concrete, Masonry Block, Stone]
- FRAMING MATERIALS, Age, Types
- Heating Equipment, Age, Types
- Heating Systems: Boilers/Furnace Inspection Methods
- Blueray Heating Boilers/Furnaces Safety Recall by the US CPSC, with additional history, photos, and technical details; Blue Flame Blue Ray
- Goodman Furnace High Temperature Plastic Vent HTPV safety recall US CPSC notice
- Inspection Procedures for Oil-Fired Heating Systems Detailed step by step approaches for inspecting complex systems]
- Lennox Pulse Furnace Safety Inspection/Warranty Program: Carbon Monoxide Warning
- Oil Tanks - The Oil Storage Tank Information Website: Buried or Above Ground Oil Tank Inspection, Testing, Cleanup, Abandonment of Oil Tanks
- Plastic Heating Vent Pipe & Other Heating Safety Recall Notices
- Weil McLain Model GV Gas Boiler/gas valve CPSC recall/repair
- Insulation Materials, Age, Types
- Asbestos HVAC Ducts and Flues field identification photos and guide
- Brick Lined Wall Cavities and exposed saw blade marks on clapboards help determine The age of a building
- Fiberglass Insulation
- Sheathing Celotex Homasote & Other
- Nails and Hardware, Age, Types
- Plaster & Beaverboard & Drywall
- Mold Resistant Drywall is it worth it?
- Plumbing Materials & Fixtures, Age, Types
- Cesspool Age Estimates help evaluate cesspool condition and need for repair or replacement
- ">plumbing pipe product failures & litigation use of plastic pipe in buildings
- Septic System Main Page Home Page for Complete Information about Septic Systems and Onsite Wastewater Disposal
- ROOFING MATERIALS, Age, Types
- Asphalt Shingles Home Page
- Asphalt Roof Life / Wear Factors determining asphalt shingle life expectancy
- Fire Retardant Treated FRT Plywood Failures inspection, detection, testing of defective FRT plywood roof sheathing
- Slate Roofs: How to Inspect and Repair Slate Roofs - Detailed Procedures for Inspection and Repair of Slate Roofs - ASHI Technical Journal, 1991, Updated 2006
- Slate Roofs: Inspecting and Evaluating Slate Roofs Hudson Valley ASHI seminar content
- Slate Roofs: a photographic library of slates, slate roofs, roofing styles
- Saw Cuts, Tool Marks, Age of
- Sears Kit Houses and other special home construction methods
- Mobile Home Inspections
- Mobile Home vs Trailer vs Modular vs Panelized Construction an explanation of terms and how to identify these structures.
- Sears Houses: How to identify Sears catalog kit houses photos and tips for identifying these interesting homes.
- SIDING MATERIALS, Age, Types
- Abatibi Siding hardboard siding failures
- Boise Siding Cascade, Georgia Pacific, Louisiana Pacific, Masonite
- EXTERIORS of buildings Landscaping, & Siding: product Failures: EIFS, synthetic stucco
- vapor barriers
- vinyl siding
- siding litigation
- paint failures diagnosis and remedy; decks, steps, railings - trip & fall hazards
- WINDOWS & DOORS, Age, Types
- References
- Age of a Home: Carson Dunlop's How to determine The age of a building [Carson Dunlop]
- Historic buildings Links to other articles: Sears Houses, How old is a House, Old House Materials & Repairs
- Old House Inspection Methods
- Developing Your Building Inspection X-Ray Vision - home inspection methodology for experts
- slate roof inspection and evaluation
- Restoration Products
- Abatron EpoxyWood Repair/Restoration 5501 - 95th Avenue, Kenosha, WI 53144 USA Tel: (262) 653-2000 Fax: (262) 653-2019, For orders: (800) 445-1754 Abatron provides a wide range of wood & building restoration epoxy products including a low-viscosity system that penetrates and solidifies rotted wood and a thicker wood repair putty type epoxy.
- Tremont Nail Company offers steel cut nails for authentic restoration projects and work on historic buildings
Books & Articles on Building & Environmental Inspection, Testing, Diagnosis, & Repair
- Our recommended books about building & mechanical systems design, inspection, problem diagnosis, and repair, and about indoor environment and IAQ testing, diagnosis, and cleanup are at the InspectAPedia Bookstore. Also see our Book Reviews - InspectAPedia.
|
The Home Reference Book - the Encyclopedia of Homes
|
- Carson Dunlop, Associates, Toronto, have provided us with (and we recommend) Carson Dunlop Weldon & Associates' Technical Reference Guide to manufacturer's model and serial number information for heating and cooling equipment
Special Offer: Carson Dunlop Associates offers InspectAPedia readers in the U.S.A. a 5% discount on any number of copies of the Technical Reference Guide purchased as a single order. Just enter INSPECTATRG in the order payment page "Promo/Redemption" space.
- "The Elimination of Unsafe Guardrails, a Progress Report," Elliott O. Stephenson, Building Standards, March-April 1993
- "Are Functional Handrails Within Our Grasp" Jake Pauls, Building Standards, January-February 1991
- Access Ramp building codes:
- UBC 1003.3.4.3
- BOCA 1016.3
- ADA 4.8.2
- IBC 1010.2
- Access Ramp Standards:
- ADA (Americans with Disabilities Act), Public Law 101-336. 7/26/90 is very often cited by other sources for good design of stairs and ramps etc. even where disabled individuals are not the design target.
- ANSI A117.4 Accessible and Usable buildings and Facilities (earlier version was incorporated into the ADA)
- ASTM F 1637, Standard Practice for Safe Walking Surfaces, (Similar to the above standards)
- America's Favorite Homes, mail-order catalogues as a guide to popular early 20th-century houses, Robert Schweitzer, Michael W.R. Davis, 1990, Wayne State University Press ISBN 0814320066 (may be available from Wayne State University Press)
- American Plywood Association, APA, "Portland Manufacturing Company, No. 1, a series of monographs on the history of plywood manufacturing",Plywood Pioneers Association, 31 March, 1967, www.apawood.org
- Asbestos products and their history and use in various building materials such as asphalt and vinyl flooring includes discussion which draws on Asbestos, Its Industrial Applications, D.V. Rosato, engineering consultant, Newton, MA, Reinhold Publishing, 1959 Library of Congress Catalog Card No.: 59-12535 (out of print).
- Building Research Council, BRC, nee Small Homes Council, SHC, School of Architecture, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, brc.arch.uiuc.edu. "The Small Homes Council (our original name) was organized in 1944 during the war at the request of the President of the University of Illinois to consider the role of the university in meeting the demand for housing in the United States. Soldiers would be coming home after the war and would be needing good low-cost housing. ... In 1993, the Council became part of the School of Architecture, and since then has been known as the School of Architecture-Building Research Council. ... The Council's researchers answered many critical questions that would affect the quality of the nation's housing stock.
- How could homes be designed and built more efficiently?
- What kinds of construction and production techniques worked well and which did not?
- How did people use different kinds of spaces in their homes?
- What roles did community planning, zoning, and interior design play in how neighborhoods worked
- "An Example of Colonial Paneling", Norman Morrison Isham, The Metropolitan Museum of Art Bulletin, Vol. 6, No. 5 (May, 1911), pp. 112-116, available by JSTOR.
- "Energy Savers: Whole-House Supply Ventilation Systems [copy on file as /interiors/Energy_Savers_Whole-House_Supply_Vent.pdf ] - ", U.S. Department of Energy energysavers.gov/your_home/insulation_airsealing/index.cfm/mytopic=11880?print
- "Energy Savers: Whole-House Exhaust Ventilation Systems [copy on file as /interiors/Energy_Savers_Whole-House_Exhaust.pdf ] - ", U.S. Department of Energy energysavers.gov/your_home/insulation_airsealing/index.cfm/mytopic=11870
- "Energy Savers: Ventilation [copy on file as /interiors/Energy_Savers_Ventilation.pdf ] - ", U.S. Department of Energy
- "Energy Savers: Natural Ventilation [copy on file as /interiors/Energy_Savers_Natural_Ventilation.pdf ] - ", U.S. Department of Energy
- "Energy Savers: Energy Recovery Ventilation Systems [copy on file as /interiors/Energy_Savers_Energy_Recovery_Venting.pdf ] - ", U.S. Department of Energy energysavers.gov/your_home/insulation_airsealing/index.cfm/mytopic=11900
- "Energy Savers: Detecting Air Leaks [copy on file as /interiors/Energy_Savers_Detect_Air_Leaks.pdf ] - ", U.S. Department of Energy
- "Energy Savers: Air Sealing [copy on file as /interiors/Energy_Savers_Air_Sealing_1.pdf ] - ", U.S. Department of Energy
- Falls and Related Injuries: Slips, Trips, Missteps, and Their Consequences, Lawyers & Judges Publishing, (June 2002), ISBN-10: 0913875430 ISBN-13: 978-0913875438
"Falls in the home and public places are the second leading cause of unintentional injury deaths in the United States, but are overlooked in most literature. This book is unique in that it is entirely devoted to falls. Of use to primary care physicians, nurses, insurance adjusters, architects, writers of building codes, attorneys, or anyone who cares for the elderly, this book will tell you how, why, and when people will likely fall, what most likely will be injured, and how such injuries come about. " - Humidity: What indoor humidity should we maintain in order to avoid a mold problem?
- Pergo AB, division of Perstorp AB, is a Swedish manufacturer or modern laminate flooring products. Information about the U.S. company can be found at http://www.pergo.com where we obtained historical data used in our discussion of the age of flooring materials in buildings.
- Plank House Construction: weblog from plankhouse.wordpress.com/2009/01/25/plank-house-construction/ and where plank houses were built by native Americans, see
Large 1:6 Scale Plank House Construction / P8094228, Photographer: Mike Meuser
06/12/2007 documented at yurokplankhouse.com where scale model Museum quality Yurok Plank Houses are being sold to raise money for the Blue Creek - Ah Pah Traditional Yurok Village project. - Re-Bath, tub lining products is a bath tub relining manufacturer and distributor located in Tempe, Arizona - see rebath.com
- Slips, Trips, Missteps and Their Consequences, Second Edition, Gary M. Bakken, H. Harvey Cohen,A. S. Hyde, Jon R. Abele, ISBN-13: 978-1-933264-01-1 or ISBN 10: 1-933264-01-2, available from the publisher, Lawyers ^ Judges Publishing Company,Inc., www.lawyersandjudges.com sales@lawyersandjudges.com and also from the InspectAPedia Bookstore (Amazon.com)
- The Stairway Manufacturers' Association, (877) 500-5759, provides a pictorial guide to the stair and railing portion of the International Residential Code. [copy on file as http://www.stairways.org/pdf/2006%20Stair%20IRC%20SCREEN.pdf ] -
- What Mold and Allergens Look Like: mold identification photos to help identify mold - choosing what to sample in buildings
- How to Clean Moldy Wood Framing & Sheathing How to clean/seal mold from/on exposed lumber or plywood subfloor or roof sheathing indoors - some suggestions based on our field and laboratory research
- Lighting, proper use of: proper aiming of a good flashlight can disclose hard to see but toxic light or white mold colonies on walls.
- Manufactured & Modular Homes: Modular Building Systems Association, MBSA, modularhousing.com, is a trade association promoting and providing links to contact modular builders in North America. Also see the Manufactured Home Owners Association, MHOAA, at www.mhoaa.us. The Manufactured Home Owners Association of America is a National Organization dedicated to the protection of the rights of all people living in Manufactured Housing in the United States.
- Mold spores in the Home - a Photo ID Library for detection and identification of mold allergens.
- How to Find and Test For Mold in buildings A "how to" photo and text primer on finding and choosing the right spots to test for mold in buildings
- Stuff that is not mold but is often mistaken for it - things you may not want to test. Also, not all "black mold" is toxic - here are examples of harmless black mold.
- Simple Adhesive Tape Sampling of Moldy Surfaces - how to send a mold sample to our lab
- Mold Sampling Methods in the Indoor Environment - In-depth article: detailed critique of popular mold testing methods - Is your mold test kit worth the bother?
- Mold-Resistant Building Practices, advice from an expert on how to prevent mold after a building flood and how to prevent mold growth in buildings by selection of building materials and by anti-mold construction details.
- Slips, Trips, Missteps and Their Consequences, Gary M. Bakken, H. Harvey Cohen, Jon R. Abele, Alvin S. Hyde, Cindy A. LaRue, Lawyers and Judges Publishing; 2 edition (April 2006), ISBN-10: 1933264012 ISBN-13: 978-1933264011
- Steps and Stairways, Cleo Baldon & Ib Melchior, Rizzoli, 1989.
- The Staircase, Ann Rinaldi
- Common Sense Stairbuilding and Handrailing, Fred T. Hodgson
- The Art of Staircases, Pilar Chueca
- Building Stairs, by pros for pros, Andy Engel
- A Simplified Guide to Custom Stairbuilding, George R. Christina
- Basic Stairbuilding, Scott Schuttner
- The Staircase (two volumes), John Templar, Cambridge: the MIT Press, 1992
- The Staircase: History and Theories, John Templar, MIT Press 1995
- Steps and Stairways, Cleo Baldon & Ib Melchior, Rizzoli, 1989.
- "The Dimensions of Stairs", J. M. Fitch et al., Scientific American, October 1974.
- "Weather-Resistive Barriers [copy on file as /interiors/Weather_Resistant_Barriers_DOE.pdf ] - ", how to select and install housewrap and other types of weather resistive barriers, U.S. DOE
- Weaver: Beaver Board and Upson Board: Beaver Board and Upson Board: History and Conservation of Early Wallboard, Shelby Weaver, APT Bulletin, Vol. 28, No. 2/3 (1997), pp. 71-78, Association for Preservation Technology International (APT), available online at JSTOR.
- What Style Is It?: A Guide to American Architecture, Rev., John C. Poppeliers, S. Allen Chambers, Wiley; Rev Sub edition (October 6, 2003), ISBN-10: 0471250368, ISBN-13: 978-0471250364
- ...