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Snow finally collapsed this house in Dutchess County NY © Daniel Friedman at InspectApedia.com Building Structures

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This page provides an index to key articles on building structural inspection, diagnosis, repair for all types of residential and light commercial buildings.

We address brick and other masonry structures, wood frame structures, steel stud construction, log homes, modular and factory built homes, even mobile homes. We include explanation of foundation materials, inspection, installation, failure diagnosis, and repairs.

These articles also address chimneys, crawl spaces, decks, building flood damage, foundation crack and movement damage, rot or insect damage, sink holes, and building leaks or water entry inspection, diagnosis, and repair advice.

The author has worked as a building contractor, as a professional home inspector, has served as education chairman for ASHI, the American Society of Home Inspectors where he also headed its certification exam committee, and is a member of ASHRAE, American Society of Heating, Refrigerating, and Air-Conditioning Engineers.

Page top photo: we studied the gradual collapse of this building located in Dutchess County, New York, documenting its condition over a twenty-year period until it finally collapsed completely.

InspectAPedia tolerates no conflicts of interest. We have no relationship with advertisers, products, or services discussed at this website.

- Daniel Friedman, Publisher/Editor/Author - See WHO ARE WE?

Detect & Evaluate Structural Defects

Schematic of major structural components of a house (C) Carson Dunlop AssociatesInspection, Diagnosis, & Repair of Building or Foundation Settlement, Improper Construction, Damage from Disasters, Rot & Insect Damage or other damage sources

Articles found in this series address just about all types of residential & light commercial building structural construction, inspection, diagnosis & repair topics such as foundation damage, leaning, buckling, bowing, and cracking, FRT plywood failures, chimney inspections & safety concerns, causes and cures for rot, mold, & termites in buildings, sinkholes at building sites, stair and rail fall & trip hazards, & also special inspection methods for mobile homes.

Most structural problems can be avoided by proper design and planning; but structural failures have been common for a long time, and sometimes are costly to handle properly.

The sketch (courtesy Carson Dunlop Associates, a Toronto home inspection & education firm) names the major structural components of a typical wood frame house set on a masonry foundation.

To find what you need quickly, if you don't want to scroll through this index you are welcome to use the page top or bottom SEARCH BOX to search InspectApedia for specific articles and information.

Or see this complete

INDEX to RELATED ARTICLES: ARTICLE INDEX to BUILDING STRUCTURES

Or use the SEARCH BOX found below to Ask a Question or Search InspectApedia

Structural Defect Recognition, Repair, Prevention for Building Structures, & Building Structural Failures

This photo of the leaning tower of Pisa was sent to us by our friend Tom Smith who knows a crooked building when he sees one.

Smith points out that the problems with the Tower have been known for generations and must have been apparent even during construction, as the upper level was constructed with an offset to try to rebalance the structure.

Modern reinforcement has permitted removal of cables that used to be tied to the tower of Pisa. As Bernie Campbalik says about old buildings, "Yep, we had guys like that back then too."

Photograph of the leaning Tower of Pisa © Tom Smith, Poughkeepsie NY 2007 used with permission.

Metal chimney during installation © D Friedman at InspectApedia.com

Pier construction, Northern Maine © D Friedman at InspectApedia.com

B

Framing & Wood Beams / Timbers Damage Inspection, Diagnosis, Testing, Repair

Photograph of severe roof structure damage from an unattended roof valley leak in a historic home.

Rot, Fungus, Termites, Carpenter Ants, Powder Post Beetles, & other Wood Destroying Organisms

Buckled siding at ground level indicates sill crushing © Daniel Friedman at InspectApedia.com

Our photo (left) illustrates a combination of factors leading to a strong indication of serious structural damage at a home: aluminum siding at ground level (risk of insect attack) combined with buckled siding at the bottom course (a condition that only occurs long after original construction) point to crushed wooden sills under this structure, most often due to insect attack or rot or both.

More Building Structure Topics

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Reader Comments, Questions & Answers About The Article Above

Below you will find questions and answers previously posted on this page at its page bottom reader comment box.

Reader Q&A - also see RECOMMENDED ARTICLES & FAQs

On 2022-09-22 by Scott - code for brick column supports?

Was is the building code for brick column supports?

On 2022-09-22 by InspectApedia (Editor) - what is the building code for brick column supports?

@Scott,

I'll be glad to work on a usable answer but need to understand the question.

Are you asking if un-reinforced brick columns were permitted? Of what dimensions? In what structures?

Piers for a mobile home? For a porch? For an entire wood framed building?

Ex. there are limits on masonry column heights, unreinforced,, further e.g. as piers under a manufactured home

 

On 2022-02-01 by Aradia Cruz - Thank you for this wonderful site, need help with unsafe house occupied by hoarders

I was almost about to cry and you came to mind. Did I tell you enough how much I love this site. You have helped thru the years. Here goes. I have a wood frame house that I rent out, 1500 square feet. Cellar below.

People moved in, I saw the huge truck, I asked about the amount of possessions, they assured me not too much.

Hoarders are protected under the law. Then it comes to me, and I research, they had a 40 foot truck that got stuck on our single road, then two 10 foot uhauls. The research said, 26 foot carries five tons, so they added 10 tons and each day UPS come around.

Now I used to be a shipper twice in my life, fortunately, I packaged and so when I see the UPS man who is buffed up, struggling with a huge box, I know its about 100 plus points, so they have added another two tons in six months.

The fire department wanted to come up asap. I was told by others around me, do not have them come, nor the planning department. But I was able to facebook a few firefighters I know, they assured me my place is being ruined and the dangers of fire loads, and that it would not be able to be saved.

Then there was the issue that she said she knew about generators. We never allow them as you must maintain them or else. I saw the small generator get rained and rained on and sure she knows.

Then she lives a filled gas can in the blazing sun for hours. Then there was the issue when I saw the deck all flammable stuff, I told her to deal with this. She cried oh we love you we never do something like this, I cried begging forgiveness for accusing. But since then I showed a few people the disaster and they shake their heads, how could she think that anyone would believe this level of trash is all flame resistant.

Okay two more things. I just narrowly missed the Santa Cruz Mountain fires of 2020, we are all flipped out, and then there is the fact that this house was one of the first to be build by a all woman crew and I fear that they are collapsing the place with their trash.

Then there is the issue, its old, the electric wires can handle a ordinary load, but when they came the electric bill went from 400 to past 1000 probably 2000, I have no access to the bill, except in passing they said way past 1000. I fear all this going thru old wires from 1970 will cause a fire, they assure me again all is well in the world, this is my sole income, I have no other income at all.

I have been unable to sleep as they gaslight and manipulate me as I am a trusting fool.What say you dear people, you have saved me years back. I literally was crying and your name popped up and I laughed oh they will know, stop your crying and here I am.

The few firefighters said it be too dangerous to even attempt to go in, that is another issue I am scared about, I love firefighters, I would never want them to be harmed over trash.

You cannot even walk around it is so much, it makes me sad this is how they abused this historic house which PBS Truly California wants to run the film that documented my mom's endeavor to break the ceiling for women in the carpentry world of men.

And these people are smiling as they destroy her legacy. Thank you for your time and this wonderful site, I sent many to you as I find it to be one of the best sites on the net. God bless and stay safe.

On 2022-02-03 by Inspectapedia Com Moderator - Fire safety & other possible hazards in a rental home

@Aradia Cruz,

Thank you for the helpful question about the fire safety and other possible hazards in your rental home, and thank you for your generous remarks about our website. We’ve worked hard on this information for years so are gratified when readers find it useful and trusted.

About the conditions in your rental home, we can offer some suggestions:

1. Hire an independent professional to inspect the property

(a professional home inspector) in order that you can be accurately informed of its condition including conditions that are caused by the tenant and/or conditions that are the landlord’s responsibility to correct or repair.

A competent onsite inspection by an expert usually finds additional clues that would permit a more accurate, complete, and authoritative answer than we can give by email alone but we have some specific suggestions that follow.

The inspection should and normally would include the condition of the building’s electrical system - a topic of concern that you have raised.

Watch out: Because you note that the home was built in the 1970s, the inspector should be alert for aluminum electrical wiring used on branch circuits such as for lighting and electrical receptacles.

If your home has aluminum wiring and if it has not already been repaired using the US CPSC recommended methods, that is an immediate and serious fire hazard that would be made worse if circuits are being overloaded.

If there is not aluminum wiring or if such has already been repaired, and provided that the inspector does not find that in the electrical panel fuses or circuit breakers are not the proper ones for the building wiring, then the electrical panel fuses or breakers should protect the building wiring from overheating, overloading, and the fire hazard associated with those conditions.

Your inspector should also confirm that smoke detectors are properly located, installed, tested, and working.

And your inspection should be complete: of the entire building and all of its mechanical and other systems.

The result of the inspection should be a list of repairs needed for any of three most-urgent conditions: (Dan's 3 D's)

  • Dangerous: conditions that are an immediate safety hazard to building occupants - this is the first priority
  • Damage: conditions that are causing rapid, costly damage to the building
  • Don't Work: conditions that mean that systems that are needed do not work reliably such as heat or plumbing drains etc.

2. Watch out: Notify the occupants immediately, orally and in writing, if there are clear & present danterous conditions

and if necessary get help from your local emergency services, electrical company, heating service company, police department, etc.

You as building owner are responsible for its safety, and in my OPINION (and in my experience having been consulted for situations like this one over many years), even if it's the tentants who are doing something dangerous, you as building owner might be blamed - and foremost, we don't want a disaster or injury to occur.

3. Review the findings with your lawyer:

When you have the results of that independent inspection, perhaps by a professional home inspector, you can review those conditions with your attorney if necessary and you can also let your tenants know if there are urgent repairs that you must make to the property to make it safe and habitable for them - if there are such.

You will also have an un-biased, independent report of conditions in the home brought by the tenants that would violate the terms of the lease - if there are such.

Your attorney will tell you that If the tenant violates the lease the landlord can evict the tenant. If not the landlord can elect not to renew the lease at its time of expiration.

Watch out: be sure to work with your attorney’s advice and with your tenants when arranging your property inspection so as to respect your tenant’s right to quiet enjoyment, and make clear that you are inspecting the property to assure meeting your own obligations for a safe, functional home.

Review your lease with a local attorney who knows your state’s rental property law and who can advise you about building safety, inspection, and the obligations of both landlord and tenant.

In general (I am not an attorney), leases require

  • That the landlord provide a safe, functional, habitable property and permits the tenant quiet enjoyment of that property.
  • That the tenant pay the rent on time and that the tenant does not do things in or to the property that damage it or make it unsafe.

Under the aegis of landlord obligations to maintain a safe functional property, the landlord has the both the obligation and the right to enter and inspect the property.

Additional general advice that you may find helpful is at

HOME INSPECTORS-U.S - find an independent home inspector in your state

ARTICLE INDEX to BUILDING FIRE SAFETY

 

On 2021-10-21 by Carl - who designs structural repairs for an old Victorian home in Wisconsin?

I'm trying to figure out the right person to hire to help design some repairs and reinforcement to the structure of our 142 year old Victorian-era house.

We know we have one cross floor (ground floor over a deep (8 foot) basement that is cracked (prior owner improperly did a expanding column there) and one corner that seems to have shifting (or the asbestos/concrete siding shingles are slipping). But the home inspector missed all these things so I want to try another path.

I'm trying to learn who I need and how to choose one that will help this house survive to see another century. Just googling "old home repair" gets me complete remodeling companies here in the Madison, WI area. Which is not what we want (we love the character).

What can you advise?

On 2021-10-21 by danjoefriedman (mod) - Finding the right person for the job?

@Carl,

From just your text we don't know the materials involved, the extent of movement, its rapidity, its cause. (More diagnostic articles on structural damage, movement, foundation damage are in the INDEX to RELATED ARTICLES found near the end of the article on this page)

If there is significant total movement such that structural connections are pulled apart or broken, or if brick walls are cracked and / or bulged, or if a concrete block or stone wall is leaning inwards or bulged several inches out of plumb, those would be examples for which a design professional's advice is probably both appropriate and urgent. I'm particularly concerned about collapse hazards that can be catastrophic.

Otherwise I would consider having a thorough home inspection performed by an inspector who is familiar with old homes . Like you I'm disappointed that your original inspector did not report evidence of settlement, prior repair, use of what's properly only a temporary support (a telepost or jackpost), and in your view, ongoing movement.

A thorough report will help you identify all of the work that's needed and to put things in priority order - urgent items first, such as conditions causing rapid expensive damage or things that are dangerous or things that you need that don't work.

When you have that information, you will know if you need a restoration contractor, or whether first you need help from a civil or structural engineer close to our city in Wisconsin.

 

On 2021-03-14 by bill - cracks in ceilings & walls on main floor

I'm getting extremely worried - for the past 3 months, I've noticed cracks on both my ceilings and walls on my main floor. They started with cracks along my bedroom ceiling that follows the joist lines in my attic. Didn't think nothing at first, but then they started popping up in all 4 bedrooms.

Last week, they started on the main floor and then cracks showed up in the walls and above windows. The house is 42 years old and was concerned with settlement issues as these were consistent with what I found online.

Upon looking everywhere in my house, I also noticed that my main hallway now has a 1/4 inch gap from between my ceramic tiles and the baseboard.

I had 4 foundation experts come to the house and because they didn't see any cracks in my outside foundation or in my bricks, they don't think I have any foundation/structural issues.

Is it possible that my main floor is giving way and then everything above it is shifting?

I am writing this at 4:30 in the morning and it's been like this for the past two weeks - I can't sleep and it's started to really affect my daily life. Has anyone encountered anything like this? Any help or

On 2021-03-14 by bill

I'm getting extremely worried - for the past 3 months, I've noticed cracks on both my ceilings and walls on my main floor. They started with cracks along my bedroom ceiling that follows the joist lines in my attic. Didn't think nothing at first, but then they started popping up in all 4 bedrooms.

Last week, they started on the main floor and then cracks showed up in the walls and above windows. The house is 42 years old and was concerned with settlement issues as these were consistent with what I found online.

Upon looking everywhere in my house, I also noticed that my main hallway now has a 1/4 inch gap from between my ceramic tiles and the baseboard.

I had 4 foundation experts come to the house and because they didn't see any cracks in my outside foundation or in my bricks, they don't think I have any foundation/structural issues.

Is it possible that my main floor is giving way and then everything above it is shifting?

I am writing this at 4:30 in the morning and it's been like this for the past two weeks - I can't sleep and it's started to really affect my daily life. Has anyone encountered anything like this? Any help or suggestions would be appreciated.

On 2021-03-14 by danjoefriedman (mod) - cracks might be unsafe

@bill,

I want to help but gee, I don't know even the slightest about your building's construction; yet you've had four inspectors who agreed with one another that there's not a foundation issue; did you ask them for other explanations of the cracking you're seeing?

If you suspect a floor framing failure you may need, at the very least, to get help from a qualified professional; she or he may want to open a floor or ceiling to see how it was framed, how its framing members are connected to the walls, and to look for insect damage, rot, inadequate framing member sizing, failing connectors, etc.

Watch out: don't defer this; depending on how your building is constructed, cracks can indicate structural movement that could be warning of a dangerous collapse.

 

On 2020-11-26 by JD - I just noticed some horizontal wall cracks - home in Florida

Was trimming bushes in front of garage today and saw a couple of horizontal cracks in wall. Pictures attached. Single story cmu wall with garage slab inside and landscaping outside. Never noticed before but I don't go in and trim shrubs there often.

These are about 4.5 ft above grade. Coastal Florida. Any thoughts would be appreciated!

On 2020-11-27 by - by (mod) - horizontal cracks in wall.

Hoizontal crack at interior masonry wall (C) InspectApedia.com DonBJD:

Is the wall dead flat or is it bulged?

Is this a crack in a parge coating or actually in the wall structure?

Does the crack in your photo extend in the mortar joint around that wall shown to the right ?

Is there cracking visible inside and outside both ?

Is there paint inside the crack - suggesting it was there before the wall was last painted? or is it new?

By amount and magnitude and in absence of a bulged wall I'd not expect this to be substantial but it's worth monitoring.

 

 

On 2020-09-23 by Don B - vertical crack in block wall

Vertical crack in concete block wall at corner (C) InspectApedia.com Don BHi there , I noticed this crack this week. It is new construction and the foundation was built 4 weeks ago. The height of foundation wall is apprx. 6 feet and the foundation is filled in with dirt and already has a slab on top. the foundation wall is filled with concrete all the way around .

Where you see the hole and exposed rebar is the level of the slab . the first floor block wall goes up from there.

Where you see the hole will alos be filled in with concrete to the top of the first floor wall as this is where the 2nd floor wood walls will be tied down to. Is this from settling foundation or something else and is it a concern?

On 2020-09-23 by - by (mod) - footing tipping or leaning

Don:

I can't see enough in your photo to be confident of a diagnosis of this crack, except that the crack is at the corner and is wider at top than bottom.

The most likely cause is footing tipping or leaning such that the wall at the left is leaning out.

I'd make a careful measurement of the walls for plumbness. Some reinforcement or repair may be in order.

 

On 2020-04-07 by znhouse - these are great tips in building structure assessment but what about shipping containers?

These are really enormous tips which help in Building Structures. But when it comes to shipping container, it seems little.

Can you provide more valuable information on shipping container house. Container house are easily to fold,easy to assembly,easy to install with low cost.

On 2020-04-07 - by (mod) - where to find more details about container housing

Sure Zn

Thanks for asking.

Please pop over to SHIPPING CONTAINER HOUSING

[found also by using the on-page search box to search InspectApedia.com for "shipping container housing"]

And don't hesitate to post follow-up questions, requests, or suggestions over there where you'll see I have considerable interest in and have take a look at quite a few shipping container based homes, offices, retail stores, etc.


On 2020-01-27 by Peter W - humidity levels seem to have shot up to a point where wall paper has slid off the walls. Mould can be seen on the surface.

Hi, I own a 1930's purpose built flat in a block of 12 flats in Worthing, West Sussex. I'm disabled & housebound by MS. I've given the flat over to an agent in Worthing to rent it out. They found me a tenant.

She is a single mother who happens to be a NHS Nurse/ She has a son who lives with her. Since she's been there the humidity levels seem to have shot up to a point where wall paper has slid off the walls. Mould can be seen on the surface.

The ceiling in the bathroom has been covered in mould due to her daily showering without opening the window. About 3 months into her tenancy I discovered her mother (both mother an daughter are from Bolivia) is effectively living there (although the agent says she is just visiting).

Seem pretty convenient the boy comes home from school to eat his tea while Mum is still at work miles away. Gran is there to cook him his tea and comfort him while waiting for his mum to come home.

Gran starts preparing food circa 3pm in a large pan fundamentally full of boiling water. She opens the kitchen door to the rest of the flat and fills the place with steam while preparing the meal. In a spare moment she showers the boy ready for ma to come home ma steps in and takes a shower this is all done with the window shut and the door to the flat wide open.

She has complained to the council about mould and moisture running down the walls. The council have given me and improvement notice and stipulated I need to have electrically drive mechanical venting installed in my bathroom and kitchen. I've said to the council the windows and doors work fine so what's the point?

They stated that this is an improvement. I said it's not necessary as the windows and doors are big enough to allow steam to escape.

That's not an improvement. Although now I think they might have a point as the nurse has gone off to Bolivia to marry her boyfriend who will be living with her to increase the humidity I guess! Your views and what I can do (without evicting them and selling the place on)

On 2020-01-27 - by (mod) -

Provided we have correctly identified the moisture source we need to

1. Remove the mold

2. Add mechanical exhaust venting

We can't rely on a building designed for what people *should* do, rather for what they will do. Any other approach won't be successful.


On 2019-11-13 by Jay - plaster cracks: ok to defer repairs? Engineer says no movement.

Hello, I have owned a 120 year old brick four square home for 2 years. Cracks began to appear in the plaster after a few months, so I had a structural engineer come out and he measured how level the house is in several rooms and he found significant movement.

I have been considering having the foundation repaired on the low corner of the house. 12 months later the engineer came back to measure again and there has been no measurable movement in the last year. I am considering having measurements done every year to monitor the situation.

Is this a reasonable course of action? I don't mind that the house is a bit crooked. Could it be the wall cracks had been painted over for the sale and the house movement happened years ago?

On 2019-11-14 - by (mod) - can I delay structural repairs or not?

Jay

You ask an important question: can I delay structural repairs or not?

But it's not by a brief couple of sentences of text that I could know enough to answer that question.

Your engineer who inspected the home twice is in a much better position to tell you if the damage that has occurred to date is severe enough or has caused enough movement or separation of framing connections etc. that there is a risk of sudden catastrophic collapse, or if on the other hand she thinks a monitoring approach is sufficient.

If she says "keep an eye on it" then you also need to have explicit, specific guidance: what change, measurement, or observation will tell us that now we need urgent repairs.

Also missing from your report is an explanation of the cause of the movement and its history. Most often when we understand what has caused building movement we have a much better idea what we can expect going forward.

About the age of movement or "did this happen a long time ago" there are some pretty easy visual clues that an astute inspector can find and evaluate that often can answer that question with some confidence.

There is damage that occurred during construction and never thereafter (big vehicle drove too close to a foundation, for example), there are damage events: storms, earthquakes, vehicle impacts, fires, etc; there are other forms of damage that are recurrent: frost heave, and still others that are ongoing: settlement exacerbated by water around the foundation for example.

In the ARTICLE INDEX you'll find articles on

  • foundation damage assessment
  • foundation damage types
  • foundation damage causes

that may be helpful .

On 2019-11-19 by Anonymous

Thanks very much. I will check out the articles. Being in the house only 2 years, I have had a hard time learning the history of the house.

Jay

On 2019-11-19 - by (mod) -

I'll be glad to assist however we can. Having worked on repair and restoration of historic and other old buildings since the 1970s, I have a particular affection for older structures. Do keep me posted and don't hesitate to ask follow-up questions

 

On 2019-09-20 by Ken - no lintels in concrete walls

It appears the builder did not use any lintels in the poured concrete walls of my home.

As a result the walls have fractured and dropped down slightly above all window and door openings. Is there a fix for this problem? If yes, what type of
contractors do this work'

On 2019-09-20 - by (mod) - there's always a fix - builder did not use any lintels in the poured concrete walls of my home.

Ken

I'd like to see photos of the situation.

But yes, there's always a fix, the question is more just what ought to be done and what will it cost.

I can't diagnose your exact situation by e-text (though photos would help), but most likely, if the movement that has already occurred is insignificant, it may be possible to cut out sufficient space above the windows to install a lintel of sufficient strength to avoid further problems.

The size and type of lintel needed depend on the building type, construction materials, and conditions, and might range from a steel lintel to reinforced concrete to stone or something else.

Please take a look at MASONRY FACADE / WALL, LINTEL & BROWNSTONE DAMAGE

where, although it's about brick structures rather than concrete, we discuss similar window lintel defects and repairs.

I'll post this conversation there to invite further comment from informed readers.

...

Continue reading at BRICK FOUNDATIONS & WALLS or select a topic from the closely-related articles below, or see the complete ARTICLE INDEX.

Or see STRUCTURAL INSPECTIONS & DEFECTS FAQs - questions & answers posted originally at this page

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STRUCTURAL INSPECTIONS & DEFECTS at InspectApedia.com - online encyclopedia of building & environmental inspection, testing, diagnosis, repair, & problem prevention advice.


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INDEX to RELATED ARTICLES: ARTICLE INDEX to BUILDING STRUCTURES

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