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Pictorial Dictionary of Types of & Causes of Paint Failure
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InspectAPedia tolerates no conflicts of interest. We have no relationship with advertisers, products, or services discussed at this website.
Paint failure & paint problme dictionary: here we provide an illustrated dictionary of types of paint failures and painting terminology. We show what different types of paint falures and painting mistakes look like on buildings and we define the terms used to explain kinds of paint job failures. This article series reviews common building exterior & interior painting
mistakes, describes how to diagnose paint failures on buildings and in art conservation. We outlines a procedure for diagnostic field inspection & lab testing of failed painted surfaces on buildings.
We include photographs of paint failures on buildings and more photos of forensic paint laboratory examination of samples of failed
paint useful to assist in diagnosing the probable cause of each type of paint failure.
Green links show where you are. © Copyright 2013 InspectAPedia.com, All Rights Reserved. Author Daniel Friedman.
ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PAINT FAILURES - Types of Paint Failures & Painting Terminology
Since no single reference listed all of the paint failure types, the list which follows is a collection of paint failure types based on ... the author, based on his field experience with house painting and paint failure
investigations since 1978, and with forensic laboratory analysis of failed paint since 1986. Other information and paint failure suggestion sources are provided at Technical Reviewers & References.
Paint Adhesion loss - paint adhesion loss means the paint "lets go" of the surface onto which it was
applied. This is usually due to poor surface preparation, application of primer or paint on oily, dirty, chalky, or dusty
surfaces, or painting over a glossy surface [on glossy paint or on mill-glazed siding].
Paint adhesion failure due to use of incompatible paints:
Paint adhesion loss may also occur if incompatible paints are used.
Fatty acids to migrate through acrylic paint (and other) layers.
This phenomenon even can be observed in oil paintings, as some pigments require and absorb more linseed oil than others.
People in the art world know that one of the basic rules in applying painting is: always fatty on top of lean
(highly bound on less bound media).
Paint adhesion failure due to gravity? One paint manufacturer's rep told
our client that the paint was falling off of the house due to an "adhesion loss due to normal aging and gravity - a
view which we consider nonsense. Gravity is not a significant factor in paint failure though once a paint
chip has totally separated from a building surface, indeed it is the force of gravity which brings it away
from the building and to a nearby horizontal surface or to the ground. If the adhesion principal failure
were only "normal aging" then the paint should be failing uniformly wherever it was applied. Of course weather, including
rain and sun exposure are indeed critical factors in paint wear and failure, and these forces are not uniform
over surfaces at a building.
Paint adhesion failures or paint cracking on stucco surfaces due to improper application or water exposure - see STUCCO PAINT FAILURES
Alligatoring: [very common failure] cracked paint which resembles alligator skin.
This is due to application of paint in too many layers. The inner paint layers have lost elasticity.
As temperatures change and the building surfaces expand and contract, the old, brittle paint cracks.
Alligatoring
might also be caused by poor adhesion to a glossy surface, painting over an inadequately-dried first coat,
or from weather exposure. Painting over an "alligatored" surface is futile. The older under-paint will continue
to crack, causing failure of the new coating. Stripping off of the old paint down to bare wood is what's needed.
Also see cracking, below for a distinction between these two similar failures.
Paint Bleeding: this is a surface discoloration from water/water soluble dyes located in
or on the painted surface, or on hardboard siding from wax in the siding. We often see this cosmetic defect when
paint is applied over cedar siding as well; also see rusting.
Paint Blistering: this very common failure is caused by moisture
getting behind paint, or by painting over wet or damp surfaces.
Moisture blisters in paint usually occur
when moisture evaporates to form a vapor bubble under an impermeable layer of paint, especially on new thin coatings
or oil paint coatings.
 Thermal blistering, or "temperature blistering" occurs when painting in sun,
or if paint is applied to hot surfaces; the blister may be from moisture or solvents in the paint itself, when its outer
skin dries before its inner layers, and the inner layer is heated. Both causes may occur together.
Thermal blistering or paint solvent blisters look very different in the paint film from moisture-caused blistering.
The microphotograph shown here at 120x, taken in our laboratory, shows the edge of a microscopic paint blister,
possibly solvent or thermal blistering. Often one cannot see this defect with
the naked eye. Instead one observes paint cracking and adhesion failures on the painted surface. Microscopic
laboratory analysis is required to complete the failure diagnosis.
See our separate article on paint laboratory
sample preparation for a procedure useful to prepare an edge-view of paint layers for microscopic examination.
Also see NCR133 article below.
Paint Solvent blisters are small, usually microscopic.
Where solvent blisters rupture they may leave pinholes in the paint or small craters.
Usually ruptured solvent blisters leave craters surrounded by fine cracks radiating out from the
crater.
Distinguishing solvent blisters from small moisture blisters: Paint Solvent blisters occur as the paint is drying as solvent trapped behind the drying or dried
outer film of the paint layer form gases (perhaps from sun exposure) which form a bubble and try to escape from the film.
Paint Moisture blisters may be small, tend to occur behind the paint film after the paint is totally dry, are round or
have rounded edges,
separate the paint from the old surface uniformly, may bleed water when punctured, and can on occasion be
extremely large, as much as 24" x the width of a clapboard. Moisture blisters in paint do not create pinholes, craters, nor crater-cracks.
Like thermal blisters, solvent blisters may be an underlying mechanism for paint failure that cannot be seen by the naked eye.
Where paint cracks around pinholes and blisters, paint adhesion failure may be observed.
The ultimate paint failure, loss of paint adhesion,
may be due to paint shrinkage and movement over the surface or moisture penetration of the paint layers at pinholes and cracks.
Paint which has failed in this manner may show other mechanisms of paint failure as well, such as separation of paint ingredients
such as separation and bubbling of paint resins intended to function as adhesives, also key factors in the paint loss from the surface. These details
become more apparent in the laboratory under forensic microscopic examination of samples of failing paint.
Paint Blooming - (blushing) - this is moisture getting into varnish, shellac, lacquer.
This coating failure leaves a milky opaque (usually-white) cloud on (or actually within) the coated surface. Paint bloom may not wipe off with a fingertip as does most efflorescence - so paint blooming is not the same visual effect as surface efflorescence, though many paint failure analysts use "bloom" for both cases and although the cause might be the same - moisture. See PAINT on STUCCO, FAILURES and see efflorescence below for an example of white bloom of efflorescence on a painted stucco exterior.
Paint Chalking - [common condition] weathered powdery exterior painted surfaces, may be
normal, or may be premature if paint was excessively thinned or inadequately primed. Painting over a chalky surface
means that the new paint will not adhere to the surface itself - since the oxidized "chalky" paint particles of
the older coating interfere.
Paint Chalk run-down - [common condition] is caused by chalking paint which runs down and stains other
wall areas or masonry or foundations below. This cosmetic defect is most noticeable on an un-painted masonry wall
below a painted surface such as a window, or wood siding above a brick wall. The oxidized paint which has washed
onto the masonry surface can be mostly-removed by power washing, but don't damage brick masonry walls by using high
pressure sand or water which can remove the glazed surface of the brick, leaving it vulnerable to future water and
frost damage.
Paint Cracking, Checking, Flaking, or Crazing - paint loses its elasticity,
crazes, then cracks, especially where paint is thick or multi-layered.
Also see "alligatoring" above.
Cracks occur when paint is applied too thickly on the surface, or possibly when multiple
layers of paint are present. Often the inner (older) layers of paint have lost elasticity and have already cracked,
or form cracks which telegraph through the newer outer layer. Painting over such surfaces is likely to lead to
failure as moisture invades the surface at cracks.
This means that moisture gets behind the paint on the surface, thus
eventually leading to paint failure. The distinction we make between "alligatoring" and "cracking" is this:
"cracking" produces long, variegated and usually fairly thin openings in a painted surface. Cracking may occur
even in a thinly painted surface. "Alligatoring" has a distinctive pattern in which the paint fissures form
a rectangular pattern, each rectangle being perhaps less than 1/4" square, and always in thick old paint. (Beware of
lead paint hazards when stripping old painted surfaces.
For diagnosing hairline cracks in painted stucco, also see STUCCO PAINT FAILURES.
Paint Chipping: paint breaks away from the surface due to poor surface preparation or
possibly due to mechanical damage; painting over chalked surfaces can also cause this defect. If the failure is
due to painting over a chalked surface the paint chips will expose an older painted surface below. If the failure is due
to mechanical damage (such as a lawn-mower kicked-up stone), usually the chip exposes bare wood below.
Paint Coverage: failure to cover or hide - usually due to poor paint mixing or poor color choice,
such as trying to paint a light color over a dark surface in a single coat.
Paint Dirt pick-up: dirt adheres abnormally to painted surfaces. Excluding dirt that collects on upper portions
of exterior siding, e.g. from road and traffic dust [where roof eaves prevent rain from washing off this dirt] or from
rain splash-up at ground level, paint may be tacky from improper solvents, paint incompatibility, or if the surface
is indoors, inadequate drying ventilation.
 Efflorescence and mottling. Efflorescence is a white or yellowish [usually mineral]
salt formed on masonry or plaster due to moisture migrating through the surface, evaporating, leaving mineral crystals
behind. Efflorescence is hygroscopic, and by attracting more moisture, will continue to accumulate. For some detailed
photos of efflorescence (sometimes mistaken for "mold") see Efflorescence & white or brown deposits
Our photo (left) shows white efflorescence and mottling that appeared on a painted exterior new-stucco wall of a home in the Southwestern U.S. after less than a year of application. See PAINT on STUCCO, FAILURES for details of stucco paint problem diagnosis & avoidance.
Painting over open cracks where moisture has not fully evaporated or painting over new too soon and where the stucco surface pH or alkalinity remains too high (over 11) invites cosmetic problems as well as early wear or failure of the painted coating. The application and curing procedure used for stucco, in turn affect the wall pH - it needs to be tested by the painter before the paint job begins. Also see Paint Blooming.
Paint Fading - this is natural paint weathering due to the ultraviolet light (in sunlight);
interior paints used on exterior surfaces may fade quickly [and are probably less weather resistant in general]. Often
fading is accompanied by chalking.
Paint Frosting - I associate this defect with a matte finish on paint that is supposed to give a smooth surface,
possibly from chemical incompatibility with the existing coating on the surface.
Galvanized metal paint failure - poor adhesion to galvanized metal- paint peels or pits when painted on
galvanized steel. This is a problem that occurs when painting over new galvanized metal or on rusty galvanized metal that has
not been cleaned. See http://www.ppg.com/getpaint/etraining/solver/e_galvan.html It is prevented by "curing" the galvanized metal before
painting it. One approach is to let (outdoor) galvanized steel simply weather for a year. Some painters will etch the
surface of the galvanized steel by washing it with a dilute acid such as vinegar. Beware that heating or oxidizing
galvanized steel can release toxic gases.
Paint Ghosting - this is caused by improper surface-priming, perhaps by too-thin application
of the primer: walls are not absorbing paint uniformly.
When the author was painting homes we avoided this issue
by applying primer uniformly and not spreading it too thin, and if ghosting was visible in the primer coat we added
a second primer coating. An assistant who tired to "stretch" the paint too far, thinking he was economizing, created such bad
ghosting on one project that we had to paint an entire interior over again. It would have been much cheaper not to have
spread the paint so thinly in the first place. We also see a similar defect if a paint roller is too dry when applying
paint over a surface.
Paint Gloss - loss of: this is due to improper priming where old paint was removed;
high surface porosity also causes loss of gloss as does paint applied in damp or foggy weather. A glossy paint
will be low-gloss or nearly flat if the paint was over-thinned. Also see http://www.ppg.com/getpaint/etraining/solver/e_gloss.html cites painting in sun, using interior paint
outside, or poor quality paint as causes for loss of gloss.
Paint Hatbanding or "Lapping"- is caused by thick paint applied at multiple layers where
cutting in `(usually) of interior walls, ceilings , and corners, or use of excessively long roller naps. We see this
quite often where a ceiling or wall corner is cut-in to the rest of the painted field using a brush, and then the
field of the painted area is covered using a roller. It is a cosmetic defect.
Hardboard siding staining or "wax bleed" is cited by Lowes and PPG, and refers
to waxes in composite siding [such as "Masonite (TM)" hardboard which bleeds (usually a brown stain) to the surface
if a proper surface sealant was not used as a primer. Such stains may be mistaken for mold.
See http://www.lowes.com/lowes/lkn?action=howTo&p=Improve/WaxBleed.html&rn=RightNavFiles/rightNavPaint
Masonry paint failure: Poor
alkali resistance - this refers to color loss and paint deterioration on masonry, possibly caused by painting over
new masonry such as a recent pour of concrete. See http://www.ppg.com/getpaint/etraining/solver/e_alkali.html. Also see Efflorescence.
Mildew [Mold]: dark or colored spots or shading in paint caused by mold growth, particularly
in damp or shaded areas. Molds which are mis-named as "mildews" in this case are growing on nutrients in paint,
varnish, or on organic debris on the coated surface. Some coatings such as oils and linseed oil-based paints are
particularly mold-friendly. Many modern paints contain "mildewcide" to reduce this effect or it can be added [beware
it's probably a serious toxin.] Mildew is indeed a type of mold, but it grows only on living plants.
Acrylic latex paints are more mildew resistant. Good surface prep is important.
Actually real "mildew" will never be found on painted surfaces. Mildew will be a member of one two groups, "Downy" or
"Powdery" but in any case mildew is an obligate parasite which grows only on living plants. What people call
"mildew" on painted surfaces is mold. Unless your walls are covered with grapes, its not "mildew."
Not that that's
much consolation. In some cases other small black spots on a wall might have been put there by "artillery fungus" a mold
genera which shoots small black sticky spores onto a surface from its nearby point of growth. In this case the paint
is not at all at fault.
Finally, small black spots may appear on a painted surface where vines have been removed and where
the vines' attachment points pulled off paint or left organic debris behind when the vines were removed. A close look
is needed to distinguish these patterns on a wall. Artillery fungus spots are likely to be close to the ground-only. Vine
spots and damage will follow a vine-growth pattern up the wall from the ground. Mold growing on a painted surface is often
keyed to areas of shade and moisture exposure.
Mill gloss is a hard shiny surface left on wood clapboards or wood trim as a result of
the lumber milling process. A high-speed rotating planer or cutting blade which is used to impart a flat smooth finish to
(usually one) side of a wood clapboard, or to interior wood trim can leave the surface of the wood hard and shiny. Unless
this "gloss" is broken by light sanding there is risk of poor paint or stain penetration of the wood surface and
thus a failure of the coating to adhere to the surface of the wood. -- DJF.
Nail head rusting - occurs where nails on a surface are painted over, usually with a
water-based paint, which rusts the nail head. It can be prevented by setting and puttying over old rusty nails, by sealing
nail heads with a lacquer-primer before painting the surface, or by using stainless or galvanized nails in the first place.
Even galvanized nails may rust, however, if the impact of the hammer cracks the galvanized coating on the nail.
Overlapping Paint - see hatbanding or lapping above.
This also occurs on exterior or interior surfaces where paint is allowed to dry and then newly-applied paint
overlaps the dried section as the next area is painted.
When the author was painting houses we reduced this hazard
(particularly indoors) by rolling out an increasingly thin
coat at the edge of a section which we know is likely to dry before getting back to continue with new paint. Using a
paint roller that is very wet for the last edge of a section is likely to leave a ridge of thick paint that will
show overlapping when painting continues.
Paint incompatibility - may be a cause of peeling, blistering, wrinkling, or other
failures. Be sure to read the manufacturer's label and to either determine what paint is already on a surface to be
re-painted, or review your choices with a paint expert.
Paint Peeling - strips or sections of paint peel loose from the surface, usually due to
moisture and/or inadequate surface preparation. Some inspectors mix descriptions of "blistering" and "peeling" but
since the causes and remedy differ the distinction can be important.
Paint Rusting - painted metal surfaces such as nail heads show through the new
paint, perhaps where metal is exposed to moisture from the paint itself if a water-based paint is used. Rust stains on buildings - see Rust Stains on Shingles
Paint Resin Failure - paint resins separate out from the paint mixture, perhaps due to
improper paint formulation, improper paint mixing, combining incompatible paints, or exposure to high temperatures
during drying.
This defect is completely invisible on the painted surface and on failing paint chips, but it can be
quite apparent during forensic microscopic examination of paint chips in the laboratory, as shown in the
lab photograph here. Another investigator had improperly identified these structures as "insect eggs". |
Paint Sagging or Running occur when paint is applied over glossy surfaces,
or due to excessive paint thinning, due to application of too much paint on the
surface, due to paint being applied to a dirty surface or being applied in weather below the recommended temperature.
Proper application of paints and surface preparation will eliminate sags and runs. This is sometimes an indication
of an inexperienced painter.
Paint Skim Coat - skim coating of building exterior surface which is in poor condition is not
a reliable painting preparation method and is likely to lead to cracking failures in the skim-coated, painted surface, as
shown in our paint failure site investigation photos just below.
Paint Spalling is flaking chipping of masonry surfaces. On painted masonry moisture may be
entering the surface through cracks or holes (or other routes) and getting behind the paint. Winter freeze-thaw cycles
(obviously only in cold climates) cause the wet substrate to freeze, expand, and chip off. We've also seen this
defect on brick walls which were tuck-pointed using a mortar with too much portland cement. Acrylic surface
conditioners (primers) can reduce this effect.
Paint Spotting, brown or other stains bleeding through new paint - "surfactant leaching" -
can cause spotting, possibly from painting a cool or damp surface or painting in cool or cold conditions. See http://www.mcphersonpainting.com/leaching.htm and also http://www.mcphersonpainting.com/tannin.htm which cites tannin
staining, when tannic acid, such as oils in pine knots or cedar bleed through new paint. Also see Rusting above.
 Surfactant leaching,: surfactants are chemicals added to paints to improve paint flow
and or to aid in formation of an emulsion.
As I stated above at "incompatible paints", surfactant leaching can occur, for example, if there is an incompatibility between
the primer coat and the finish coat.
Paint chemists formulate primers and topcoats to work together as a tested and proven paint coating system.
Tackiness and slow-dry - is caused by painting a second coat too soon, or painting in
wet or foggy weather, or applying paint onto a damp surface. If using an alkyd, painting in an enclosed,
un-vented area the painter can also cause this condition.
Thickness failures of painted surfaces: paint can build up to an excessive thickness,
leading to cracking and peeling when a new coat is applied, as the under-coats have lost elasticity, or trap moisture or debris
between paint layers.
Paint - Vinyl siding paint failures - warping is caused by painting a light colored siding
with dark paint, (overheating in sun exposure), probably aggravated by improper siding installation (nailed too tightly to the wall).
Some paints are formulated specifically to adhere to vinyl siding but may still peel if the siding was painted while
wet or dirty. We've also seen plastic trim become deformed on metal entry doors which were painted a dark color,
enclosed by a glass-storm door, and facing sunlight.
Paint Wrinkling - wrinkles in the top paint layer may be caused if paint is applied too
thickly, if the paint is not brushed out, or if paint is applied over a prior coating which has not dried.
Paint Yellowing - caused by lack of natural light, or alternatively by exposure to sunlight.
Moisture, heat, or fumes (such as from oil or gas fired equipment) can also cause yellowing of some paints,
as can some paint additives (such as "mildewcides").
Frequently Asked Questions (FAQs) about definitions of paint failure terms
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Technical Reviewers & References
Related Topics, found near the top of this page suggest articles closely related to this one.
- Paraphrased and
occasionally quoted from http://www.paint-worx.com/PaintFailure.htm and additions from http://www.bennette.com/pdf/whyfail.pdf.
- Paint and Surface Coatings, Theory and Practice [purchase at Amazon.com], R. Lambourne & T.A. Strivens, Ed., Woodhead Publishing Ltd., William Andrew Publishing, 1999 ISBN 1-85573-348 X & 1-884207-73-1 [This is perhaps the leading reference on modern paints and coatings, but is a difficult text to obtain, and is a bit short on field investigation methods - DF]
- Analysis of Modern Paints, Thomas J.S. Learner, Research in Conservation, 2004 ISBN 0-89236-779-2 [Chemistry of modern paints, overview of analytical methods, pyrolysis-gas chromatography signatures of basic modern paints and their constituents, Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy for paint analysis, direct temperature-resolved mass spectrometry, and analysis in practice - technical reference useful for forensic paint science, focused on art works -DF]
- Seeing Through Paintings, Physical Examination in Art Historical Studies, Andrea Kirsh, Rustin S. Levenson, Materials in Fine Arts, 2000 ISBN 99-051835 [ forensic science, technical reference, focused on art works - DF]
- Sealants, Durability of Building Sealants (RILEM Proceedings), J.C. Beech, A.T. Wolf, Spon Press; illustrated edition (1995), ISBN-10: 0419210709, ISBN-13: 978-0419210702
This book presents the papers given at the RILEM Seminar held at the Building Research Establishment, Garston, UK in October 1994. The book provides an opportunity for researchers to review up-to-date progress towards the achievement of the objectives of the standardisation of laboratory techniques of sealants in the variety of service conditions to which they are exposed.
- Soiling and Cleaning of Building Facades (RILEM Report), L.G.W. Verhoef (Editor), Routledge; 1 edition (November 3, 1988), ISBN-10: 0412306700, USBN-13: 978-0412306709
The report of a comprehensive investigation by RILEM which examines all aspects of the cleaning of facades, subject to soiling by both biological and non-biological agencies. The contributors are international authorities working in this field giving essential advice to all those who need to know how to approach the problems connected with the soiling and cleaning of building facades.
- Staining, Prevention of Premature Staining in New buildings, Phil Parnham, Taylor & Francis; 1996, ISBN-10: 0419171304, ISBN-13: 978-0419171300
The appearance of ugly staining early in a buildings life, ruins an otherwise pleasing appearance, tarnishes the image of the owners and gives rise to costly refurbishment works. In this book Phil Parnham raises a number of questions that should be considered whenever a new building is being designed or built. These are: * why has staining become so prominent; * what causes premature staining; which parts of new buildings are likely to be affected; * how can it be avoided? By using a number of highly illustrated case studies, the author answers these questions and ends by suggesting measures that should be taken by all design and construction professionals to prevent premature staining.
- Paint Handbook: testing, selection, application, troubleshooting, surface preparation, etc., Guy E. Weismantel, Ed., McGraw Hill Book Company, 1981, ISBN-10: 0070690618, ISBN-13: 978-0070690615, [Excellent but a bit obsolete paint theory and practice, also a bit light on field investigation methods, out of print, available used-DF]
How to select and apply the right paint or coating for any surface. The first major reference to help you choose the correct paint or other finish to do the job best on a particular surface exposed to a particular environment. Experts in the field give full advice on testing surface preparation, application, corrosion prevention, and troubleshooting. The handbook covers wood, metal, composites, and masonry, as well as marine applications and roof coatings. A ``must'' working tool for contractors, architects, engineers, specification writers, and paint dealers.
- Paint and Surface Coatings, Theory and Practice, R. Lambourne & T.A. Strivens, Ed., Woodhead Publishing Ltd., William Andrew Publishing, 1999 ISBN 1-85573-348 X & 1-884207-73-1 [This is perhaps the leading reference on modern paints and coatings, but is a difficult text to obtain, and is a bit short on field investigation methods - DF]
Provides a comprehensive reference source for all those in the paint industry, paint manufacturers and raw materials suppliers, undergraduate and postgraduate students, and industrial paint users. R. Lambourne was in the Research Department at ICI Paints Division and the Industrial Colloid Advisory Group, Birstol University, UK.
- Art, Biology, and Conservation: Biodeterioration in Works of Art, Robert J. Koestler et als. Eds., Metropolitan Museum of Art, 2003, ISBN 1-58839-107-8
- Building Pathology, Deterioration, Diagnostics, and Intervention, Samuel Y. Harris, P.E., AIA, Esq., ISBN 0-471-33172-4, John Wiley & Sons, 2001 [General building science-DF - ** Particuarly useful text **
- Understanding Ventilation, John Bower, The Healthy House Institute, ISBN 0-9637156-5-8, 1995 [General building science-DF - ** Particularly useful text. Mr. Bower has retired from the field but his book continues to be important]
- Dampness in buildings, Diagnosis, Treatment, Instruments, T.A. Oxley & E.G. Gobert, ISBN 0-408-01463-6, Butterworths, 1983-1987 [General building science-DF]
- "Moisture Control in buildings: Putting Building Science in Green Building," Alex Wilson, Environmental Building News, Vol. 12. No. 5. [Good tutorial, "Moisture 101" outlining the physics of moisture movement in buildings and a good but incomplete list of general suggestions for moisture control - inadequate attention given to exterior conditions such as roof and surface drainage defects which are among the most-common sources of building moisture and water entry.--DJF]
- "Paint Failure Problems and Their Cure," Daniel L. Cassens and William C. Feist, National Forest Products Laboratory, online via Purdue University, http://www.ces.purdue.edu/extmedia/NCR/NCR-133.html
- Why House Paint Fails [on file as /exterior/Why_House_Paint_Fails_FPL1.pdf ] - , Mark Knaebe, US FPL, web search August 2010, original source: http://www.fpl.fs.fed.us/documnts/finlines/knaeb95a.pdf
- Why Paint Jobs Fail [on file as /exterior/Why_Paint_Fails_Bennett.pdf ] - , web search, August 2010, original source: http://www.bennette.com/pdf/whyfail.pdf, four pages describing alligatoring, bleeding, blistering, etc. Bennette Corporation, P.O. Box 9088, Hampton, VA 23670, Phone: 757-838-7777, Toll Free: 800-869-2929
Fax: 757-827-0529, Email: info@bennette.com, Website: www.bennette.com quoting:
Bennette Paint Manufacturing Company, Inc. is a Virginia corporation which was founded in Newport News, Virginia in 1966 by James P. Bennette, Sr. In 1984, Mr Bennette sold the company to his employees through an Employee Stock Ownership Plan (ESOP). Today the company has a modern manufacturing plant, research laboratory, central warehouse and general offices located at 401 Industry Drive, Hampton, Virginia. From these facilities the company is able to supply quality paints and coatings through its company owned distribution and service centers and authorized dealers located in Virginia, North Carolina and South Carolina. Bennette Paint Manufacturing Company, Inc. also owns and operates Bennette Equipment Company which specializes in the sale, service, and rental of paint spraying and pressure cleaning equipment.
- Supplemental Guidelines for Removing Paint From Interior and Exterior Wood Surfaces [on file as "/exterior/Paint_Removal_USGSA.pdf ] - , US General Services Administration, Historical Preservation Technical Procedures, 06400-02, web search August 2010, original source: //w3.gsa.gov/web/p/Hptp.nsf/0/40aff5a115b6a9e5852565c50054b4f4?OpenDocument
- "Common Paint Problems," http://www.parkerpaint.com/Common%20Paint%20Problems.html illustrates common paint failures - though their images and text appear to have been stolen from PPG - see http://www.ppg.com/getpaint/etraining/solver/exterior.html which catalogs paint failures and causes
- "Paint problem solver" from Lowes, http://www.lowes.com/lowes/lkn?action=howTo&p=Improve/PntPrbSlv.html&rn=RightNavFiles/no.html
- "Mill Glaze: Myth or Reality," R. Sam Williams, Mark Knaebe, US FPL, original source: fpl.fs.fed.us/documnts/finlines/willi01a.pdf
- http://www.paintlab.com/failure.html is a lab offering paint chip failure analysis
- PPG Exterior Failures http://www.ppg.com/getpaint/etraining/solver/exterior.html
Books & Articles on Building & Environmental Inspection, Testing, Diagnosis, & Repair
 The Home Reference Book - the Encyclopedia of Homes, Carson Dunlop & Associates, Toronto, Ontario, 25th Ed., 2012, is a bound volume of more than 450 illustrated pages that assist home inspectors and home owners in the inspection and detection of problems on buildings. The text is intended as a reference guide to help building owners operate and maintain their home effectively. Field inspection worksheets are included at the back of the volume. Special Offer: For a 10% discount on any number of copies of the Home Reference Book purchased as a single order. Enter INSPECTAHRB in the order payment page "Promo/Redemption" space. InspectAPedia.com editor Daniel Friedman is a contributing author.
Or choose the The Home Reference eBook for PCs, Macs, Kindle, iPad, iPhone, or Android Smart Phones. Special Offer: For a 5% discount on any number of copies of the Home Reference eBook purchased as a single order. Enter INSPECTAEHRB in the order payment page "Promo/Redemption" space.
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- Carson Dunlop, Associates, Toronto, have provided us with (and we recommend) Carson Dunlop Weldon & Associates' Technical Reference Guide to manufacturer's model and serial number information for heating and cooling equipment
Special Offer: Carson Dunlop Associates offers InspectAPedia readers in the U.S.A. a 5% discount on any number of copies of the Technical Reference Guide purchased as a single order. Just enter INSPECTATRG in the order payment page "Promo/Redemption" space.
- Analysis of Modern Paints, Thomas J.S. Learner, Research in Conservation, 2004 ISBN 0-89236-779-2 [Chemistry of modern paints, overview of analytical methods, pyrolysis-gas chromatography signatures of basic modern paints and their constituents, Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy for paint analysis, direct temperature-resolved mass spectrometry, and analysis in practice - technical reference useful for forensic paint science, focused on art works -DF]
- Art, Biology, and Conservation: Biodeterioration in Works of Art, Robert J. Koestler et als. Eds., Metropolitan Museum of Art, 2003, ISBN 1-58839-107-8
- Building Pathology, Deterioration, Diagnostics, and Intervention, Samuel Y. Harris, P.E., AIA, Esq., ISBN 0-471-33172-4, John Wiley & Sons, 2001 [General building science-DF - ** Particularly useful text **
- Dampness in buildings, Diagnosis, Treatment, Instruments, T.A. Oxley & E.G. Gobert, ISBN 0-408-01463-6, Butterworths, 1983-1987 [General building science-DF]
- Paint and Surface Coatings, Theory and Practice [purchase at Amazon.com], R. Lambourne & T.A. Strivens, Ed., Woodhead Publishing Ltd., William Andrew Publishing, 1999 ISBN 1-85573-348 X & 1-884207-73-1 [This is perhaps the leading reference on modern paints and coatings, but is a difficult text to obtain, and is a bit short on field investigation methods - DF]
- Paint Handbook: testing, selection, application, troubleshooting, surface preparation, etc., Guy E. Weismantel, Ed., McGraw Hill Book Company, 1981, ISBN-10: 0070690618, ISBN-13: 978-0070690615, [Excellent but a bit obsolete paint theory and practice, also a bit light on field investigation methods, out of print, available used-DF]
How to select and apply the right paint or coating for any surface. The first major reference to help you choose the correct paint or other finish to do the job best on a particular surface exposed to a particular environment. Experts in the field give full advice on testing surface preparation, application, corrosion prevention, and troubleshooting. The handbook covers wood, metal, composites, and masonry, as well as marine applications and roof coatings. A ``must'' working tool for contractors, architects, engineers, specification writers, and paint dealers.
- Paint and Surface Coatings, Theory and Practice, R. Lambourne & T.A. Strivens, Ed., Woodhead Publishing Ltd., William Andrew Publishing, 1999 ISBN 1-85573-348 X & 1-884207-73-1 [This is perhaps the leading reference on modern paints and coatings, but is a difficult text to obtain, and is a bit short on field investigation methods - DF]
Provides a comprehensive reference source for all those in the paint industry, paint manufacturers and raw materials suppliers, undergraduate and postgraduate students, and industrial paint users. R. Lambourne was in the Research Department at ICI Paints Division and the Industrial Colloid Advisory Group, Birstol University, UK.
- Seeing Through Paintings, Physical Examination in Art Historical Studies, Andrea Kirsh, Rustin S. Levenson, Materials in Fine Arts, 2000 ISBN 99-051835 [ forensic science, technical reference, focused on art works - DF]
- Sealants, Durability of Building Sealants (RILEM Proceedings), J.C. Beech, A.T. Wolf, Spon Press; illustrated edition (1995), ISBN-10: 0419210709, ISBN-13: 978-0419210702
This book presents the papers given at the RILEM Seminar held at the Building Research Establishment, Garston, UK in October 1994. The book provides an opportunity for researchers to review up-to-date progress towards the achievement of the objectives of the standardisation of laboratory techniques of sealants in the variety of service conditions to which they are exposed.
- Soiling and Cleaning of Building Facades (RILEM Report), L.G.W. Verhoef (Editor), Routledge; 1 edition (November 3, 1988), ISBN-10: 0412306700, USBN-13: 978-0412306709
The report of a comprehensive investigation by RILEM which examines all aspects of the cleaning of facades, subject to soiling by both biological and non-biological agencies. The contributors are international authorities working in this field giving essential advice to all those who need to know how to approach the problems connected with the soiling and cleaning of building facades.
- Staining, Prevention of Premature Staining in New buildings, Phil Parnham, Taylor & Francis; 1996, ISBN-10: 0419171304, ISBN-13: 978-0419171300
The appearance of ugly staining early in a buildings life, ruins an otherwise pleasing appearance, tarnishes the image of the owners and gives rise to costly refurbishment works. In this book Phil Parnham raises a number of questions that should be considered whenever a new building is being designed or built. These are: * why has staining become so prominent; * what causes premature staining; which parts of new buildings are likely to be affected; * how can it be avoided? By using a number of highly illustrated case studies, the author answers these questions and ends by suggesting measures that should be taken by all design and construction professionals to prevent premature staining.
- Understanding Ventilation, John Bower, The Healthy House Institute, ISBN 0-9637156-5-8, 1995 [General building science-DF - ** Particularly useful text. Mr. Bower has retired from the field but his book continues to be important]
- "Moisture Control in buildings: Putting Building Science in Green Building," Alex Wilson, Environmental Building News, Vol. 12. No. 5. [Good tutorial, "Moisture 101" outlining the physics of moisture movement in buildings and a good but incomplete list of general suggestions for moisture control - inadequate attention given to exterior conditions such as roof and surface drainage defects which are among the most-common sources of building moisture and water entry.--DJF]
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Paint & Fiber Forensic Analysis, Diagnosis, Conservation
- Analysis of Modern Paints, Thomas J.S. Learner, Research in Conservation, 2004 ISBN 0-89236-779-2
[Chemistry of modern paints, overview of analytical methods, pyrolysis-gas chromatography signatures of basic modern paints and their constituents, Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy for paint analysis, direct temperature-resolved mass spectrometry, and analysis in practice - technical reference useful for forensic paint science, focused on art works. One of our most useful texts in forensic investigation of paint failures and paint problem diagnosis - for building investigators as well as art conservators. -DF]
Although oil remains an important binding medium in artists' paints, today's synthetic resins are being used with increasing frequency. This was true during much of the twentieth century, when artists such as David Alfaro Siqueiros, Jackson Pollock, and Pablo Picasso used commercial or industrial paints based on synthetic resins. The growing popularity of synthetic resin materials carries important implications for the conservation, preservation, and treatment of modern art.
This volume outlines the techniques that are currently employed to analyze the synthetic resins used in modern painting materials, such as pyrolysis-gas chromatography-mass spectrometry, Fourier Transform infrared spectroscopy, and direct temperature-resolved mass spectrometry. For each technique, results are given for standard samples of the principal classes of synthetic binding media, various pigments and extenders, tube paint formulations, and microscopic paint fragments taken from actual works of art.
Primarily intended for conservation scientists, conservators, researchers, and students of conservation, this book will also be of interest to other museum professionals.
- Art, Biology, and Conservation: Biodeterioration in Works of Art, Robert J. Koestler et als. Eds., Metropolitan Museum of Art, 2003, ISBN 1-58839-107-8
Series of excellent research and advice articles on art work conservation of special use to conservators and also to building, artifact, and art forensic investigators. MOMA. - DF
Despite the perception that artworks are timeless and unchanging, they are actually subject to biological attack from a variety of sources—from bacteria to fungi to insects. This groundbreaking volume, which publishes the proceedings of a conference held at The Metropolitan Museum of Art in 2002, explores how the development of these organisms can be arrested while preserving both the work of art and the health of the conservator.
The richly illustrated text, containing the writings of over 40 scientists and conservators, is divided into sections on stone and mural paintings, paper, textiles, wood and archaeological materials, treatment and prevention, and special topics. The artworks and cultural properties discussed include, among many others, Paleolithic cave paintings, Tiffany drawings, huts built by early Antarctic explorers, and a collection of toothbrushes taken from Auschwitz victims. --
Robert J. Koestler is a research scientist at The Metropolitan Museum of Art; Victoria H. Koestler is a freelance writer and editor; A. Elena Charola is a freelance conservation scientist; and Fernando E. Nieto-Fernandez is a biologist at Old Westbury College, New York.
- Cultural Heritage and Aerobiology, Methods and Measurement Techniques for Biodeterioration Monitoring, Paolo Mandrioli, Guilia Caneva, and Cristina Sabbioni, Eds., Kluwer Academic Publishers, 2003 ISBN 1-4020-1622-0
This is a translated and revised edition of the original Italian version. This book is the first to give a general overview of the application of aerobiology (the science that studies the biological components of the atmosphere) to the conservation of our cultural heritage. Aerobiological monitoring makes it possible to estimate the risks of degradation of artefacts of historical or artistic importance by airborne microorganisms (airborne spores and vegetative structures) according to the types of materials forming the artefacts, to the conditions of the microclimate and to the type of environmental pollution, thus enabling the planning of preventive or reparative intervention. Among the book's main features are: + Aspects of the biodeterioration of different materials (paper, wood, fabrics, parchment, leather, stone, glass, metals, plastic, etc.). + Methods for measuring environmental parameters, both physical (microclimatic) and chemical (pollutants). + Methods and techniques of aerobiological monitoring. + Specific problems concerning the different types of environments. Audience: The subject is thoroughly explored, thus supplying a useful tool to those who are in charge of the conservation of our cultural heritage (libraries, archives, museums, churches, hypogea, monuments, archaeological sites, etc.).
See our book review of this reference.
- Exterior Paint Problems on Historic Woodwork [Copy on file as /exterior/Preservation_Brief_10_ Exterior_Paint_Problems_on_Historic_Woodwork.pdf ] - , Kay D. Weeks and David W. Look, AIA, U.S. Department of the Interior, National Parks Service Preservation Brief No. 10. Web search 02/01/2011, original source: http://www.nps.gov/hps/tps/briefs/brief10.htm
- Microscopy of Textile Fibres (Microscopy Handbooks, 32), P H Greaves, Garland Science; 1 edition (January 1, 1995), ISBN-10: 1872748244, ISBN-13: 978-1872748245
[We ordered our copy from the British publisher - now it's on Amazon.
These 3 fiber books have been essential forensic lab references supplementing our McCrone Research courses on forensic microscopy; also of use to textile conservators. - DF
An up-to-date practical guide to the properties and characteristics of textile fibres, with clear advice on sampling, specimen preparation and examination procedures.
- Microscopy of Animal Textile Fibres, Alex Blakey Wildm, 1954
Hard to obtain, useful for forensic microscopy - DF
- Modern Paints Uncovered (Getty Conservation Institute Symposium Proceedings), Thomas Learner, Getty Publications (March 1, 2008),ISBN-10: 089236906X, ISBN-13: 978-0892369065
Over the past seventy years, a staggering array of new pigments and binders has been developed and used in the production of paint, and twentieth-century artists readily applied these materials to their canvases. Paints intended for houses, boats, cars, and other industrial applications frequently turn up in modern art collections, posing new challenges for paintings conservators.
This volume presents the papers and posters from "Modern Paints Uncovered," a symposium organized by the Getty Conservation Institute, Tate, and the National Gallery of Art and held at Tate Modern, London, in May 2006. Professionals from around the world shared the results of research on paints that have been available to artists since 1930--the date that synthetic materials began to significantly impact the paint industry.
Modern Paints Uncovered showcases the varied strands of cutting-edge research into the conservation of contemporary painted surfaces. These include paint properties and surface characteristics, analysis and identification
- Of Microbes and Art: The Role of Microbial Communities in the Degradation and Protection of Cultural Heritage, Kindle Edition,
Springer; 1 edition (June 30, 2000), ASIN: B000VHV4FC
- Paint Handbook: testing, selection, application, troubleshooting, surface preparation, etc., Guy E. Weismantel, Ed., McGraw Hill Book Company, 1981
[Excellent but a bit obsolete paint theory and practice, also a bit light on field investigation methods, out of print, available used. Very useful reference for paint testing, selection, and paint failure diagnosis - focus on non-artistic use of paints such as on buildings, roofs, marine coatings. -DF]
How to select and apply the right paint or coating for any surface. The first major reference to help you choose the correct paint or other finish to do the job best on a particular surface exposed to a particular environment. Experts in the field give full advice on testing surface preparation, application, corrosion prevention, and troubleshooting. The handbook covers wood, metal, composites, and masonry, as well as marine applications and roof coatings. A ``must'' working tool for contractors, architects, engineers, specification writers, and paint dealers
- Paint Magic, Jocasta Innes, Frances Lincoln; 4th edition (August 17, 2006), ISBN-10: 071122272X, ISBN-13: 978-0711222724 - Paint advice for home decoration, including painting techniques such as antiquing, bambooing, bleaching, color washing, combing, decorative painting, dragging, dyeing, gliding, graining, japanning, lacquering, lining, marbling, porphyry, rag-rolling, sponging, staining, stencilling, stippling, tortoiseshelling, trompe l'oeil, and vinegar painting - DF
- Paint and Surface Coatings, Theory and Practice - [purchase at Amazon.com], R. Lambourne & T.A. Strivens, Ed., Woodhead Publishing Ltd., William Andrew Publishing, 1999 ISBN 1-85573-348 X & 1-884207-73-1
[
This is perhaps the leading reference on modern paints and coatings, but is a difficult text to obtain, and is a bit short on field investigation methods. Encyclopedic reference on the composition, production, properties, use, and testing of paints and coatings - DF]
Provides a comprehensive reference source for all those in the paint industry, paint manufacturers and raw materials suppliers, undergraduate and postgraduate students, and industrial paint users.
- Plant Biology for Cultural Heritage: Biodeterioration and Conservation, Giulia Caneva, Maria Pia Nugari, Ornella Salvadori, Getty Publications (January 15, 2009), ISBN-10: 0892369396, ISBN-13: 978-0892369393
- Quality Assessment of Textiles, Karl Marshall, Kindle Edition, Springer; 2nd edition (October 31, 1993, ASIN: B00193F3BI
The damage which can occur in certain fibrous raw materials or during the production and storage of textiles is expertly described in this book by Karl Mahall. He particularly shows how to find concealed textile defects by using microscopic analysis. The examples represent typical cases that the author encountered during forty years of experience in the industry. Well-illustrated with impressive photographs, they invite you to follow each step and learn to apply the same methodology in practice. This book is especially useful as a manual for both chemical and textile engineers and quality engineers. It is also a useful reference for others in the textile industry in general.
- Seeing Through Paintings, Physical Examination in Art Historical Studies, Andrea Kirsh, Rustin S. Levenson, Materials in Fine Arts, 2000 ISBN 99-051835 [ forensic science, technical reference, focused on art works - DF]
One of the best texts available for forensic investigation of the history, authenticity, and condition of paintings - DF
- Building Pathology, Deterioration, Diagnostics, and Intervention, Samuel Y. Harris, P.E., AIA, Esq., ISBN 0-471-33172-4, John Wiley & Sons, 2001 [General building science-DF - ** Particularly useful text **
- Understanding Ventilation, John Bower, The Healthy House Institute, ISBN 0-9637156-5-8, 1995 [General building science-DF - ** Particularly useful text. Mr. Bower has retired from the field but his book continues to be important]
- Dampness in buildings, Diagnosis, Treatment, Instruments, T.A. Oxley & E.G. Gobert, ISBN 0-408-01463-6, Butterworths, 1983-1987 [General building science-DF]
- "Moisture Control in buildings: Putting Building Science in Green Building," Alex Wilson, Environmental Building News, Vol. 12. No. 5. [Good tutorial, "Moisture 101" outlining the physics of moisture movement in buildings and a good but incomplete list of general suggestions for moisture control - inadequate attention given to exterior conditions such as roof and surface drainage defects which are among the most-common sources of building moisture and water entry.--DJF]
- "Paint Failure Problems and Their Cure," Daniel L. Cassens and William C. Feist, National Forest Products Laboratory, online via Purdue University, http://www.ces.purdue.edu/extmedia/NCR/NCR-133.html
- Why House Paint Fails [on file as /exterior/Why_House_Paint_Fails_FPL1.pdf ] - , Mark Knaebe, US FPL, web search August 2010, original source: http://www.fpl.fs.fed.us/documnts/finlines/knaeb95a.pdf
- Why Paint Jobs Fail [on file as /exterior/Why_Paint_Fails_Bennett.pdf ] - , web search, August 2010, original source: http://www.bennette.com/pdf/whyfail.pdf, four pages describing alligatoring, bleeding, blistering, etc. Bennette Corporation, P.O. Box 9088, Hampton, VA 23670, Phone: 757-838-7777, Toll Free: 800-869-2929
Fax: 757-827-0529, Email: info@bennette.com, Website: www.bennette.com quoting:
Bennette Paint Manufacturing Company, Inc. is a Virginia corporation which was founded in Newport News, Virginia in 1966 by James P. Bennette, Sr. In 1984, Mr Bennette sold the company to his employees through an Employee Stock Ownership Plan (ESOP). Today the company has a modern manufacturing plant, research laboratory, central warehouse and general offices located at 401 Industry Drive, Hampton, Virginia. From these facilities the company is able to supply quality paints and coatings through its company owned distribution and service centers and authorized dealers located in Virginia, North Carolina and South Carolina. Bennette Paint Manufacturing Company, Inc. also owns and operates Bennette Equipment Company which specializes in the sale, service, and rental of paint spraying and pressure cleaning equipment.
- Supplemental Guidelines for Removing Paint From Interior and Exterior Wood Surfaces [on file as "/exterior/Paint_Removal_USGSA.pdf ] - , US General Services Administration, Historical Preservation Technical Procedures, 06400-02, web search August 2010, original source: //w3.gsa.gov/web/p/Hptp.nsf/0/40aff5a115b6a9e5852565c50054b4f4?OpenDocument
- "Common Paint Problems," http://www.parkerpaint.com/Common%20Paint%20Problems.html illustrates common paint failures - though their images and text appear to have been stolen from PPG - see http://www.ppg.com/getpaint/etraining/solver/exterior.html which catalogs paint failures and causes
- "Paint problem solver" from Lowes, http://www.lowes.com/lowes/lkn?action=howTo&p=Improve/PntPrbSlv.html&rn=RightNavFiles/no.html
- "Mill Glaze: Myth or Reality," R. Sam Williams, Mark Knaebe, US FPL, original source: fpl.fs.fed.us/documnts/finlines/willi01a.pdf
- http://www.paintlab.com/failure.html is a lab offering paint chip failure analysis
- PPG Exterior Failures http://www.ppg.com/getpaint/etraining/solver/exterior.html
- "Peeling Back Paint Layers For a Glimpse Into the Past," James Barron, The New York Times, 25 Feb 2010, p. A26
- "Staining and Microbiological Infestation of Acrylic Paintings on Hardboard", Ulrik Runeberg, Conservator (Dipl. Rest./M.A.), Museo de Arte Contemporáneo de Puerto Rico, San Juan Presented,April 2007 conference in Richmond Virginia, sponsored by the AIC (American Institute for Conservation), this paper discussed the staining and microbial infestation of acrylic paintings on hardboard. - private correspondence, ER <->DF 12 September 2006. The following quotation is from the paper's abstract:
"Hardboard served as a common and popular support for many modern paintings that were carried out from the mid - 1920’s, and still is used occasionally in contemporary art. Many artists rejected hardboard as an inferior industrial construction material of low aesthetical value, whereas others considered the processed and compressed wood fiber boards to be a stable, light and economic alternative to solid wood panels and other rigid supports.
"From the conservator’s critical point of view, the many disadvantages of this type of support include: high acidity, hygroscope characteristics, tendency of ‘off-gassing’, (>tendency of) warping, occasional flaking of painting material in the case of tempered hardboard. The deterioration of paintings on hardboard depends on a number of factors including: the quality of the hardboard, prevailing storage conditions, and the preparation of the support by the artist. While there are many paintings on hardboard that are in very good condition, this paper will focus on those paintings that are heavily deteriorated and damaged.
"A very characteristic damage found on porous painting layers such as acrylic colour on hardboard, is the formation of stains. Generally, those stains are described without any differentiation as ‘fox-spots’. The examination of various paintings concerned led to the conclusion, that there exist different kinds of stains that need to be discriminated against each other, to ensure an appropriate conservation and restoration treatment.
"This paper aims to characterize and differentiate the stains, and will provide preventive and practical treatment proposals for the conservation and restoration of affected paintings. Questions such as ‘What are the stains composed of?’ and ‘Which may be the causes?’ will be addressed. Stains may consist of a variety of contents, such as: Ligneous residues, fungal infestation, bacterial activity, a combination of microbial and support induced discolouration [SID], a ‘symbiotic relation’ of ‘SID’ and fungal infestation, or the blooming of ingredients from the original painting materials. A range of microscopic analysis of the actual microbiological infestation of selected samples will be provided. The paintings that were examined, sampled and treated, are part of the Puerto Rican heritage, and were all kept in excessive humid tropical conditions, before they entered the Conservation Department of the Museum of Contemporary Art in Puerto Rico.
"Conservation treatment options of stained paintings on hardboard will be discussed. A high level of acidity (caused from SID and/or micro-organisms) may require measures of reduction, disinfection and neutralization. Treatment methods that reduce the ligneous stains and residues of micro-organisms, and neutralize affected areas in painting layers include stain removal through the application of soaking compresses (poultices), and de-acidification through alkaline material.
"Other aspects of deterioration, that do not have to do directly with the formation of stains, but also are typical for hardboard as painting support, will be mentioned briefly." - U.R.
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