The Ladder Effect of Horizontal Cable Railings - climbing children & Safety Issues.

This article describes a child safety hazard that may be present where guardrails or stair guards can be climbed, particularly by children where climbable guardrails are in our opinion an attractive nuisance. We include research on the child hazard at climbable guardrails that discuss the actual risks involved.

Page top photo: the inwards-curved horizontal-cable guardrail over the Thames in London is an example of a more-safe and less-climbable guard using horizontal members. Note also the very secure top to this guardrail and also its height compared to the pedestrians standing nearby.

This article series describes and includes illustrations of cable or wire rope railings or guardrails used along decks, balconies, walkways and stairways.

We include definitions of guardrail, a handrailing or stairway handrail, and other terms that assist in understanding the building code, construction, and safety requirements that wire cable type railings must meet. Where the presence of children argues against any sort of horizontally-run guard railing member, cable railing manufacturers can provide vertical cable railing designs.

The Ladder Effect of Horizontal Guardrailings & Cable Railings - Safety Issues

The term "Ladder Effect" in guardrail and railing design has been widely-used to describe the attractive nuisance to children that is found when a guardrailing has horizontal or easily-climbed materials.

There are two different risks we see at guardrailings that are built using horizontal members:

1. Stretched horizontal cable opening size - fall-through risk

In our cable guardrail at in the photo above, the tension on the guardrail cables was pretty high but a child standing on the cable can often increase the opening size to more than 4-inches.

The stretch and opening of horizontal guard cables, factors that increase the risk of falling-through the guard, can be minimized by placing intermittent posts at suitable intervals between the supporting posts.

Our concern with a horizontally-run guardrail structure is that it is not only climbable, but also that where cable railings are used, often we find the cables are loose enough that a child can easily slip between the cables - an installation or maintenance error, not a conceptual error.

[Click to enlarge any image]

2. Ladder Effect - attractive nuisance may lead to a child-hazard / fall-over

How serious is the "Ladder Effect" hazard? Experts say not very-serious. Examples of some independent research we found may support that claim. A 2018 study of falls among children ages 0-4 does not even list climbing on nor falling through guardrails, and cites very few injuries ascribed to "Decks". ( Chaudhary 2018).

The National Association of Home Builders (NAHB) Research Center have conducted its own analysis of the US Consumer Product Safety Commission's (CPSC) data that was in turn collected by the National Electronic Injury Surveillance System (NEISS). The NAHB concluded:

• The results indicate that falls from Porches, Balconies, Open-Side Floors, Floor Openings Handrails, Railings, Banisters among young children aged 18 months to 4 years account for an estimated 0.032
  percent of injuries in that population.
• The incident rate is approximately 2.5 per 100,000 children between 18 months and 4 years of age.
• There is much uncertainty in the data to ascribe causality or the physical situation that lead to reported injuries. The CTC's conclusion was that the low incidence rate did not warrant the creation of code language.

- Source: GUIDE to HANDRAIL & GUARDRAILING BUILDING CODES [PDF] , Wagner Architectural Systems, [live link given at the end of this article.]

Current Building Codes Omit Prohibition of Guards Creating the Ladder Effect

• No Ladder Effect wording is present in the current model building codes: the IRC or IBC.
• Ladder effect prohibitions for guard raillings do aoppear in some local jurisdictions - check with your local code official.

The 2000 International Residential Code (IRC) included:

IRC R316.2: Required guards shall not be constructed with horizontal rails or other ornamental pattern that results in a ladder effect.

The 1993-2000 BOCA Code National Building Code included:

Required guards shall not be constructed with horizontal rails or other ornamental pattern that results in a ladder effect.

Subsequently these prohibitions of climbable guardrailings were deleted. The reasons cited included

• Absence of hard evidence of the ladder effect fall hazard (i.e. not producing a significant number of injuries) "The ladder effect is based on perception, not reality"
• Assertion that the purpose of guards is to prevent an accident, and that climbing is not an accident.
  
  (OPINION: Really? what about climbing falls? After all don't we refer to "climbing stairs" as a normal activity against which falls are to be prevented?)

Really? OPINION: For researchers who argue that the "ladder effect" is not a useful construct and that children are not attracted to climbable structures, take another look at the photographs shown here and in independnt research.

Spend time watching children in shopping malls, even on ferries or other locations where horizontal guards that are readily climbable are installed. There can be little doubt that these are attractive to children, as they resemble playground equipment in appeal.

In our next guardrail photo shown below, where in the distance is a nice view of Seattle's Lake Washington, the horizontal guardrailing members are constructed of metal pipe and do not stretch or deflect, but they are more than 4" apart and as they are horizontal, a child could easily climb the guardrailing at this Seattle.

The ladder effect is a potential child hazard that pertains to any type of guardrail or stair guard that uses horizontal, climbable enclosing members.

The actual risk surely involves additional factors including the level of adult supervision of children.

OPINION: Still one might want to take a look at the role of interested industries in the conduct of research on this topic.

Atlantis suggests no horizontal space between posts should be 4 feet on center - a spacing that I usually see has been violated by the installer.

Stair guards with loose cables or wide openings or climbable enclosing members may also be unsafe

Parental Supervision of Children Reduces Guardrail Hazards

Our photo above illustrates the importance of parental supervision of small children around any fall hazard, including open, loose, horizontal cable guardrailings and even "no railings".

This walkway is formed by the top of a dam once used to provide water and water power to fabric mills in San Miguel de Allende, in Guanajuato, Mexico. Today the area is El Charco del Ingenio, a botanical garden and tourist attraction.

Below we can see by casual observation (sagging and wide-open wire cables) that this cable type stair guard does not protect children using the stairs.

This installation is in a coffee shop in Colonia Sur in Queretaro, Mexico.

Above our second photograph, shows a closely-spaced, highly-tensioned guard rail and stair guard at the Franklin Delano Roosevelt estate in Hyde Park, New York.

At least some of the cable railing suppliers offer vertical cable railings for installations where a horizontal railing is not approved or not suitable.

In our OPINION, a vertical cable guardrail adequately addresses the climbability question (the ladder effect) and if properly tensioned, might pass the opening spacing requirements.

The Atlantis company's opinion is that because of their small diameter and lack of rigidity, horizontal cables are thin and not easy to climb. [46] Indeed in our photo where kids were tugging on the horizontal cables installed in a cable railing in New York City, the cables appeared rigid enough that there was not much visible deflection.

Our field experience is that children enjoy climbing horizontal cables and other horizontally run guardrailings. Perhaps due to playground practice, it's apparent that kids have little difficulty ascending the cables.

Below: loose ropes form both the stair guard and "handrailing" that my friend Daniel R. demonstrates in our photo below, from Uruapan, Mexico.

OPINION: We do not recommend any type of horizontal guardrail intermediate members that can be climbed in locations where children may be present.

And a secure, graspable handrailing would have made the stairs above a bit easier and safer to use, and would be smart in areas where those details are not part of building code enforcement.

Research on Child Safety vs Cable Guardrails or Stair Railings

Reader Question: are there really safety or security issues for children with cable railings on decks and stairs?

15 August 2015 Barbara said:

Are there any data or feedback on security issues for children with cable railing (deck and staircase)? I am concerned that they might want to climb on the horizontal cables, but not sure if it is a serious issue.

Reply:

Horizontal cables or any horizontal member in a guardrail are a child hazard as children can and are tempted to climb such a guardrail - a hazard often described as the ladder effect.

The ladder effect hazard at guardrails and stair guards remains a common opinion among safety experts (cited below) and some code officials and home inspectors, regardless of whether or not the railing was approved by local code officials.

In our opinion, the aesthetic desire for cable railings and the marketing objectives of vendors may be a factor in the removal of the ladder effect hazard from some building code restrictions on guardrail design and there may be both inadequate fall and injury reporting data as well as conflicting interests between safety and and industry vendors.

For example, Hedge (2007) completed a under the auspices of the National Association of Home Builders' Research Center (NAHBRC) and funded by and prepared for the National Ornamental and Miscellaneous Metals Association (NOMMA), an industrial association that includes vendors of cable railing systems that did not find data which supported the need for additional code language.

Readers concerned only with code violation and "legality" of cable guardrailings should check with their local building code enforcement official.

Readers concerned with child safety should also review the safety articles cited below. Istre (2003) makes clear that guardrail openings spaced or capable of being spaced more than 4 inches apart are a significant fall and injury hazard for children.

Typically there are other hazards such as the ability of the cables to be stretched or moves such that the 4-inch safety opening size can be increased so that a child could also pass through the guard.

Stair Baluster Spacing Rule of Thumb

For this reason some builders and code enforcement officials specify a 3 1/4" spacing between horizontal cables rather than the 4-inch rule of thumb used for solid balusters.

Other sources we found (Ellis 2011) suggest that cable manufacturers suggest a 3-inch spacing. opening.

See details at STAIR BUILDING RULES of THUMB

References discussing cable guardrailings, cable railing safety, design, construction & spacing specifications

Note: the deck building citations below are generally quiet or have little to say about child hazards, climbability, and building code compliance for cable railing systems but they do offer good construction practices and discuss cable tension, spacing, post security and strength and similar cable railing design considerations.

• Ashby, Karen, and Maria Corbo. "Child fall injuries: an overview." Hazard Edition 44 (2000).
• Chaudhary, Sofia, Janet Figueroa, Salah Shaikh, Elizabeth Williams Mays, Rana Bayakly, Mahwish Javed, Matthew Lee Smith, Tim P. Moran, Jonathan Rupp, and Sharon Nieb. PEDIATRIC FALLS AGES 0–4: understanding demographics, mechanisms, and injury severities [PDF] Injury epidemiology 5, no. 1 (2018): 7.
  Abstract excerpt:
  
  Conclusions: Pediatric unintentional falls are a significant burden of injury for children < 5 years. Future work will use these risk and injury profiles to inform current safety recommendations and develop evidence-based interventions for
  parents/caregivers and pediatric providers.
• Culvenor, John F. "Design of Childproof Barriers to Prevent Falls from a Height in Public Places." The Proceeding of the XVI Annual International Occupational Ergonomics and Safety Conference ʹ2002 www.iea.cc/ECEE/pdfs/DesignofChildPrfBarriers_Culvenor.pdf -
  
  Excerpt "Figure 10 shows a cable barrier along the edge of a balcony. These types of barriers are hazardous because they are climbable. In addition, because the cables are flexible, the spacing can be pushed out to a greater size allowing a child can squeeze through. The cables also present an entanglement and choking hazard and because of their small diameter are also much sharper than larger diameter bars. "
• Ellis, Mark, "Installing Cable Railings, A simple approach to a great upgrade", Professional Deck Builder, November 2011, retrieved 25 Aug 2015, original source: http://www.deckmagazine.com/Images/Installing%20Cable%20Railings_tcm122-1385984.pdf - Excerpt:
  
  The International Residential Code (IRC) says that a 4-inch sphere cannot pass between the cables; most manufacturers recommend placing the cables every 3 inches - rather than every 4 inches - to ensure that a railing meets that requirement, because no matter how tight the cable is, there will always be some play in the center of the run, and over time the cables will stretch, allowing even more sag.
  
  [Note: the IRC cited is referring to solid, non-deflectable vertical balusters installed in stair, deck, ramp or balcony guardrailings - Ed.]
• Feeney, Inc., "International Building Codes and the "Ladder Effect / Climbability", Feeny Inc., 2603 Union St. Oakland, CA 94607-2423 USA, Tel: 800-888-2418, Website: Retrieved 2016/08/28, original source: www.feeneyinc.com/site/resources_dealers/binder_docs/Intl_Building_Codes.pdf
  Website excerpt from the company's "about us" page:
  
  Jim Feeney opened the doors of Feeney Wire Rope & Rigging in an old soap factory building located on the edge of the San Francisco Bay in Berkeley, California. The post-War, San Francisco Bay Area was booming with military, maritime and construction business, and Feeney quickly gained a solid reputation as a company that provided quality rigging products and superior service. ... Feeney soon grew to become one of the leading suppliers of custom rigging and hardware in the region...
  
  Feeney expanded its operations and opened a Feeney Northwest facility, in Eugene, Oregon, to develop the newest addition to the Feeney architectural line: aluminum railing frame systems. Feeney was now able to offer its customers not only CableRail cables but also a complete railing system with cable, glass panel, or picket infill options.
  
  The railings were first introduced under the CableRail brand but are now marketed under their own brand, DesignRail®. This product addition solidified Feeney's position as a significant and influential voice in the rapidly expanding railing market..
• Hedge, Alan, PhD, Thomas Kenney, P.E., Phillip Davis, REVIEW OF FALL SAFETY OF CHILDREN BETWEEN THE AGES OF 18 MONTHS AND 4 YEARS IN RELATION TO GUARDS AND CLIMBING IN THE BUILD ENVIRONMENT [PDF], NAHB Research Center, Inc. 400 Prince Georges Boulevard Upper Marlboro, MD 20774, funded by and prepared for the National Ornamental and Miscellaneous Metals Association (NOMMA), December 2007.
  Excerpts:
  Research shows that climbing plays an important role in the physical, cognitive, and social development of the young child, and that this is encouraged in many situations, such as playgrounds and school gymnasia.
  
  Research studies of injuries to children are medically oriented and seldom explore any guard design issues. These studies extrapolate from smaller, longitudinal data sets, usually within a hospital or particular location, to give a national estimate of injuries. Such estimates typically are much larger than the percentage of injuries recorded in the latest injury data set.
  
  Studies of the climbability of different fencing designs have used inconsistent terminology to describe the designs tested, have used adult encouragement of children to climb the fences, and also have provided abundant safety padding to protect against a fall. Such contrived situations do not reflect how behavior might occur in a naturalistic setting.
  
  Recent fall injury data from the U.S. Consumer Product Safety Commission on accidents with guards is analyzed. The results indicate that climbing and falls from these assemblies among young children aged 18 months to 4 years account for an estimated 0.032 percent of injuries resulting in emergency room visits in that population.
  
  [NOTE: the following comment by peer reviewer Kimberly Stone: "Additionally, the 0.032% injury rate for falls from guards stated in the abstract has no meaning initially because it is not reported in a “per population per year” format nor is it placed into context by comparing to other statistics, such as homicides or motor vehicle collision data."
  
  Results from either the research studies or the injury data are neither specific enough nor consistent enough to constitute a solid basis for building code requirements.
  
  Children’s safety concerning guards cannot be guaranteed solely by guard design, but must also involve a program of education on when it is appropriate and when it is not appropriate to engage in climbing a structure.
  
  [NOTE: the following comments about cable guardrails and child safety were provided by peer reviewer Kimberly Stone who commented on the article cited just above:
  
  "It was stressed that the literature reports fall incidences in localized areas and that these rates are considerably higher than that derived from the NEISS data. Reasons for this are not fully discussed. One possibility is that the research is carried out in areas with high incidences of this, which is certainly true considering that most research is carried out in urban areas with high buildings.
  
  I would argue that the NEISS may underestimate the true burden of falls from guards for several reasons. One reason which was stated, is that the coding of the NEISS is not conducive to identifying these falls. Also, since little research has been done on the target area of falling from a guard, the fall rates reported in the literature (mostly stairs and windows), does not reflect the actual incidence of falls from guards.
  
  Also, many injuries resulting from falls from guards may be treated in urgent care centers, primary care providers’ offices or not brought to medical attention for a variety of reasons. Even though these falls may be less severe since the victims are not seen in an emergency room or hospital, they may still contribute substantially to the economic burden of injury in medical costs and lost income 10.
  
  The conclusions regarding a lack of data regarding guard design features is certainly appropriate. Emphasis is appropriately placed on the fact that there is no research regarding “guards” as defined in this report. However, attention should be paid to the fact that the age of the child seems to be an important factor, since most falls occur in ages 1 to 4, and the fact that after the age of four it seems that few fencing designs can prevent climbing. Examining the fencing designs deemed “unclimbable” by younger children should certainly provide a starting point for guard design.
  
  One concern I have is that emphasis is placed on the child climbing over the guard and falling. There was no mention of the possibility of a child attempting to climb a guard and falling while failing to climb it. In the studies conducted regarding climbability of guards, great attention was paid to preventing children from falling during the study and they did not report if falls occurred when children failed to climb the guard. It is certainly possible that falling backward from the guard could cause as much injury as falling over the guard, and this should be considered when designing guards.
  
  The American Academy of Pediatrics’ policy statement on prevention of falls is appropriately cited when discussing the importance of injury prevention11. There is also an impressive amount of literature in the health education literature regarding health promotion and education, as well as the interaction between legislation and individual and community education.
  
  I encourage you to read articles by Andrea Gielen, ScD on this topic. Another report of interest is the report “Built Environment, Healthy Communities, Healthy Homes, Healthy People” which reports on a symposium sponsored by the NIEHS. While it is true that counseling can increase some injury prevention behaviors, the most effective injury prevention strategies are those that involve legislation and passive protection 12" - Kimberly E. Stone, MD, MPH, Fellow, American Academy of Pediatrics Member, Section on Injury and Poison Prevention, kimstonemd@yahoo.com.


• ICC CTC, CLIMBABLE GUARDS, ICC Code Change History 2000-2004/2005 [PDF] ICC Code Technology Committee (CTC)
  Excerpts:
  
  Exception: The triangular openings formed by the riser, tread and bottom rail of a guard at the open side of a stairway are permitted to be of such a size that a sphere 6 inches (153 mm) cannot pass through.
  
  Reason: During the 1999 code hearings, an attempt was made (via E87-99) to introduce requirements for nonclimbable guards.
  
  Mostly for reasons of scoping, this was not successful.
  
  However, in the IRC there was a clear vote on the part of code officials to maintain a requirement (in R316.2) prohibiting "horizontal rails or other ornamental pattern that results in a ladder effect."
  ...
  The IBC, unlike the IRC, is supposed be able to include more performance language for requirements. Nonclimbable guards is a prime example of something best dealt with in performance language so that there is maximum, reasonable freedom for responsible designers to provide functional guards. This is what this proposal attempts to accomplish and it is based on the ample justification provided in the work of Elliott Stephenson which is well published in the model code magazines and will not be repeated here. (If trees need to die, let it at least be for adequately high vertical pickets for guards that will serve their adult users and children. Note that vertical pickets are not the only solutions complying with the performance criterion.)
  ...
  Committee action: Disapproval
  Committee Reason: The proposed text includes vague language which would lead to nonuniform enforcement. The reason for specifying children under the age of 7 years has not been justified.
  
  
• Istre, Gregory R., Mary A. McCoy, Martha Stowe, Kevin Davies, D. Zane, R. J. Anderson, and R. Wiebe. "Childhood injuries due to falls from apartment balconies and windows." Injury Prevention 9, no. 4 (2003): 349-352. Excerpt:
  
  Ninety eight children were injured in falls from buildings during the three year period; 39 (40%) were admitted to hospital. Seventy five of the falls (77%) involved apartments, and most occurred around noon or evening meal times. Among apartment falls, 39 (52%) fell from windows, 34 (45%) from balconies, and two (3%) from unknown sites.
  
  For more than two thirds of balcony related falls, the child fell from between the balcony rails, all of which were spaced more than 4 inches (10 cm) apart. On-site measurement showed the rails were an average of 7.5 inches (19 cm) apart; all of these apartments were built before 1984.
  
  For more than two thirds of window related falls, the window was situated within 2 feet (61 cm) of the floor.
• Katwijk, Kim, & Linda Katwijk, "Installing Cable Railings - Two specialty tools and a few techniques expand your design options", Professional Deck Builder, March-April 2007, Excerpt:
  
  Cable railing is much easier to install than many deck builders think.
  
  Horizontal cables are run through holes drilled in railing posts and tightened with turnbuckles or studs (connectors that grab the cable and tighten by way of a nut) until they "sing." Open and airy, cable railing virtually disappears, offering the client an unobstructed view and a clean, contemporary look.
  
  Stainless steel cable railing is low maintenance, long lasting, and fairly easy to install. With a little know-how, you can turn a nice profit. Cable and Posts Cable comes in 1/8-inch to 1/2-inch diameters, in 1/16-inch increments.
• Lanigan, John Bartlett. "The Most Complete Incomplete Fall Presentation." In ASSE Professional Development Conference and Exposition. American Society of Safety Engineers, 2003.
• Lanigan, John Bartlett, and Ruby Clemens. "The When, Where And How to Look For Fall Exposure." In ASSE Professional Development Conference and Exhibition. American Society of Safety Engineers, 2009.
• Lido Designs, Inc., "Building Codes - general information and guidelines", [in BuyRailings, a division of Lido Designs, Inc.], (2011), retrieved 25 Aug 2015, original source: https://www.buyrailings.com/t-GeneralBuildingCodes.aspx, Excerpt:
  
  The published 2000 IRC stated that guardrails shall not be constructed with horizontal members or other ornamental pattern that results in a ladder effect. The ladder effect has never been a part of the IBC. The ladder effect was removed from the IRC during the 2001 code cycle.
  
  The change was noted in the 2001 IRC supplement and the current 2003 IRC contains no reference to the ladder effect.
  
  
  However, some local code authorities are using older codes based on BOCA – the creator of the ladder effect wording – and the 2000 IRC. Many local code inspectors are not aware of the 2001 change and may reject guardrailings with infills they interpret as creating a ladder effect.
  
  It is taking time for the 2001 IRC supplement and the new 2006 model codes to trickle down to the local levels. In the meantime, be prepared to address this issue should it come up in your area.
• National Ornamental & Miscellaneous Metals Association (NOMMA), 805 South Glynn St., Ste. 127 #311, Fayetteville, GA 30214 Tel: 888-516-8585, Email:
  nommainfo@nomma.org "The National Ornamental & Miscellaneous Metals Association was formed in 1958 to serve the ornamental and miscellaneous metals industry. ... NOMMA is strongly committed to improving the industry through education and advocacy work. We are also dedicated to educating owners and the design/build community on the many advantages or ornamental and miscellaneous metalwork. ... Our Mission Statement: The National Ornamental & Miscellaneous Metals Association serves its members and advances the industry through education and the promotion of a positive business environment. Our Purpose: To promote the common business interest of those engaged in the ornamental and miscellaneous metals industry."
• Peden, M. M. World report on child injury prevention. World Health Organization, 2008.
• Riley, Joanne E., Michael S. Roys, and Sandra M. Cayless. "Initial assessment of children's ability to climb stair guarding." The journal of the Royal Society for the Promotion of Health 118, no. 6 (1998): 331-337.
  Brown, Ann. "Dear Colleague." Nursing Management 30, no. 1 (1999): 6-7. US CPSC, Publication No. 330, (un-dated), dbs.idaho.gov/programs/school/publications/Bleachers.pdf
• Salas, Tom, "Foolproof Cable Railings - If the posts and rails are properly designed and installed, the cables should never come loose", Professional Deck Builder, June 2015, retrieved 25 Aug 2015, original source: http://www.deckmagazine.com/fencing-and-railing/foolproof-cable-railings_o.aspx - Excerpt:
  
  The most common cable-rail problem I’ve seen occurs when someone tries to convert a conventional balustrade with 4x4 wood posts, 2x6 top rails, and 2x2 pickets to a cable rail by removing the pickets, drilling the posts, and installing a cable kit.
  
  Because the compression created by the cables bears on the top rail, the post-to-rail connections, and the outermost posts, the outer posts will bow inward over time from the pull of the cables, even if the posts are well-attached to the framing and meet code. This will lead to an endless cycle of retightening cables and more post bowing.
  
  When properly installed, however, wood posts are just as effective as metal posts, and I think no rail is more beautiful than a clear redwood or red cedar post system with cables.
  
  I won’t install cable on a 4x4 post, however; the posts must be 6x6 or 4x6, with the long dimension parallel to the cables.
• Shields, Brenda J., Elizabeth Burkett, and Gary A. Smith. "Epidemiology of balcony fall–related injuries, United States, 1990-2006." The American journal of emergency medicine 29, no. 2 (2011): 174-180.
• Stephenson, Elliott O., THE ELIMINATION OF UNSAFE GUARDRAILS, A PROGRESS REPORT [PDF] Building Standards, March-April 1993
• Towner, Elizabeth, and Heather Ward. "Prevention of injuries to children and young people: the way ahead for the UK." Injury prevention 4, no. suppl 1 (1998): S17-S25.
• Wagner, GUIDE to HANDRAIL & GUARDRAILING BUILDING CODES [PDF] , Wagner Architectural Systems, 10600 West Brown Deer Road Milwaukee, WI 53224 USA Website: https://www.wagnerarchitectural.com/ Tel: 888 243 6914 - retrieved 2021/06/25 original source: https://www.wagnerarchitectural.com/wp-content/uploads/2017/04/ Guide-to-Handrail-and-Guard-Rail-Building-Codes-and-Standards-1.pdf

...

Continue reading at CABLE RAILING CODES, OPENINGS, LADDER EFFECT or select a topic from the closely-related articles below, or see the complete ARTICLE INDEX.

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