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Photograph of a loose, unsanitary well plumbing system exposed to surface water runoffr © DJ FriedmanHow to Abandon a Well

Procedures for decommissioning a drilled well,
bore hole, or dug well safely

How to decommission or abandon a water well:

We include recommendations for abandoning a drilled water well or borehole that will no longer be used and we provide research citations on proper well sealing or abandonment procedures.

In a second discussion we describe the procedure for abandoning a dug well.

The article includes research and regulation citations on water well or bore hole abandonment or decommissioning and adds warnings about practical problems that may occur during well abandonment.

InspectAPedia tolerates no conflicts of interest. We have no relationship with advertisers, products, or services discussed at this website.

- Daniel Friedman, Publisher/Editor/Author - See WHO ARE WE?

Well Abandonment / Bore-hole Sealing Procedures for Wells Taken out of Service

Old wells, lots of things to fix (C) Daniel Friedman Photograph of a dug well interior

A well that is not in use-or sometimes referred to as an "abandoned" well - can be a potential threat to health, safety and the environment.

This article discusses proper abandonment or decommissioning of un-used or failed water wells of all types, including drilled wells and dug wells such as those shown in our photographs here.

Wells that are no longer used may be buried or forgotten.

Without proper abandonment such wells are unsafe: people, children, pets or other animals stepping into or falling into a borehole well or a dug well can be fatal. And even if protected by a cover, if abandoned wells are not filled-in they can contaminate the environment, polluting nearby drinking water sources.

Often they have not been sealed properly. Sealing is the process of clearing an unused well of debris and filling the well with a special material called grout. - various citations below.

The steps you need to take to seal off a water well or to de-commission a well depend on

[Click to enlarge any image]

Reader Question: how to shut down a well - how to abandon a well

Photograph of a water well pit(May 3, 2012) Mark said:
what's the best way to shut down a well. I mean to fill it with sand or concrete. ?

Reply: Abandoning a drilled well, bore hole, with steel casing

To *properly* abandon a drilled water well or bore hole well (such as a well with a steel casing) usually means

  1. Remove the well piping, pump, wiring, etc. from the well casing.
  2. Divert surface runoff away from the well.
  3. Disinfect the well? Hire a Pro? 

    Depending on regulations where you live you may be required to disinfect the well and also you might be required to hire a certified or licensed well professional.

    The example comment below is excerpted from Washington State's DOE instructions in the U.S. A.

    You will need to contact a licensed well driller to decommission a well. Washington law requires all wells be decommissioned by a licensed driller.

    A licensed driller will have experience with well construction and decommissioning materials and methods. They also know about the local geology. All of this knowledge is necessary to safely and properly close a well.

    Costs to decommission wells will vary depending on the depth, diameter , and geology of the area.

    Special equipment may be required to remove old pumps and pipes from the well. You will need to send in a “Notice of Intent to Decommission a Well” to the Department of Ecology at least 72 hours in advance of the work.     - Washington State DOE, retrieved 31 Jan 2015 original source: https://fortress.wa.gov/ecy/publications/publications/96br097.pdf

    Watch out: the amount of bleach actually needed to disinfect a well depends on the actual volume of water in th well - which is a function of the well water total depth and well diameter.

    See WELL CHLORINATION SHOCKING PROCEDURE
    and

    See WELL DYNAMIC HEAD & STATIC HEAD DEFINITION - how to calculate the amount of water in a well.

    A general guide using laundry bleach (5.25% chlorine) is to use 3 cups of bleach per 100 gallons of well water.

    If you are using hypochlorite granules (70% chlorine) you can use 2 heaping table spoons per 100 gallons of well water, pre-mixed and then poured into the well, washing down casing sides in the process.

    Also take care that handling bleach itself is dangerous and requires appropriate caution and protective gear.
  4. Seal the well to be abandoned.

    There may be alternative methods that are acceptable depending on local regulations, well depth, casing condition, etc. such as using a plug in the casing for deep wells but there are concerns with plug failure: analyzed by Mainguy (2007) and Jiminez (2002).

    Generally the well company will fill in the well with concrete or with bentonite clay or another grouting material to be sure that surface water or casing leaks never inject contaminants into the aquifer via the well bore. Don't use sand as that won't prevent surface runoff or other contaminants from entering the well.

    Well plugging material details:  well plugging materials commonly used include "neat cement" (6 gallons of water per 94 pond bag of cement), bentonite clay slurry used for commercial grouting or plugging bentonite, or pelletized or crushed bentonite: pellets or chips of bentonite clay that will swell (to 10x original volume) when wet. If using bentonite chips use larger coarse product (3/8 to 3/4 ") that will pour well into the well casing.

    For a 6-inch well casing you'll need about 15 pounds of coarse bentonite clay filler per foot of well depth.

    Watch out: if your well plugging material is not successfully poured to the bottom of the well you may be required to bore out the whole mess and do the job over again. Pour materials slowly and be sure they are falling to the well bottom.

    Some jurisdictions require that the well casing top of a decommissioned well should be welded in place or sealed by a threaded or mechanically attached water-tight cap.
  5. Cut off the casing? 

    Some jurisdictions require that after shocking and sealing the well the casing should be cut off and then capped below ground, typically at 2 feet. The hole or well pit if a well-pit is involved, is then back-filled.
  6. Record the well location (opinion)
  7. Report the well decommissioning as required by local codes.

How to Abandon a Hand Dug Well

Dug well abandonment details - adapted from Kansas DOH http://www.kdheks.gov/waterwell/download/PluggingHandDugWellsFactSheet.pdfHand dug wells (and large bore hole wells) present both the risk of contamination of the aquifer by surface runoff and the risk of personal hazard should someone fall into the well.

Dug wells, too, if not to be used, should be safely and properly abandoned. However depending on its original construction (such as dry stone laid well wall) it may be difficult to assure that surface water won't run into the well excavation.

The following dug well abandonment advice is adapted from the Kansas Department of Public Health in the U.S. Check with your local government as other regulations may apply at your location.

  1. Find the high water level: Measure the water level in the well with a weighted tape measure or string. If marks in the well indicate that water levels have been higher than present, use the higher water level.

    See WELL DEPTH, HOW TO MEASURE
  2. Disinfect the well: Pour approximately two gallons of chlorine bleach into the well to properly disinfect it.

    Watch out: this DOH advice is not entirely reliable as the amount of bleach actually needed to disinfect a well depends on the actual volume of water in th well - which is a function of the well water total depth and well diameter.

    See WELL CHLORINATION SHOCKING PROCEDURE
    and

    See WELL DYNAMIC HEAD & STATIC HEAD DEFINITION - how to calculate the amount of water in a well
  3. Knock down the top five feet of the well wall 

    material and let it fall inside the well.
  4. Fill the well with sand and gravel to the water level top 

    which was measured in Step 1 above (the blue line in our sketch). Use the weighted string or tape measure to determine when enough san and gravel have been added.

Hand dug well that has been filled in eliminates several safety and water contamination hazards (C) Daniel Friedman at InspectApedia.com

Above: the first dug well shown above, located in Mexico, has been filled in to about 12 inches above the surface of surrounding soil (and concrete).

Our second photo, below, of a well in Tlaxcala, Mexico, has not been abandoned nor is there a protective cover.

Dug well without cover, Tlaxcala Mexico (C) Daniel Friedman

  1. Fill in the remaining open space with compacted natural clay or approved grout to a depth of 5 feet below ground surface.
  2. Use approved cement or sodium bentonite and sodium bentonite grouting material to fill the well from 5 feet to 4½ feet below ground surface.

    Watch out: if the well excavation at the end of this step is a fall-in hazard to anyone and considering that in step 7 we are to wait for the bentonite to cure, it may be necessary to set up appropriate guards or barriers to prevent an accident. Washington State's DOE reported:

    There have been no reported deaths of people falling into abandoned wells in recent years in Washington state but just about every year there are reports of dogs, horses or other farm animals injured or killed from a fall into an abandoned well.

    In August 2012, a 1,800-pound horse fell into an abandoned well in Centralia and died after a rescue attempt by local firefighters.

    The horse had stepped on top of a concrete lid that covered the top of the well, which collapsed underneath the horse’s weight. In July 2012, a 13-year-old pet draft horse fell through a covering on an abandoned well near Shelton but was able to keep his head above water until fire department rescuers were able to pump the water from the well and pull him free.

    Dogs have died or have been injured in recent years on Vashon Island and near Chehalis. Photo of worker climbing down an abandowned well. Courtesy of Riverside Fire Authority Note that abandoned wells cannot be used for animal carcass disposal.     - retrieved 31 Jan 2015 original source: http://www.ecy.wa.gov/programs/wr/wells/abandon-wells.html
  3. Backfill the remaining well depth: after a proper amount of time to allow for the curing of the grouting material, back fill the remaining part of the well with surface soils all the way to the surface.
  4. Report the plugging of the well as required by your local authorities. For example Kansas requires a plugging record to be filed with the KDHE Bureau of Water - Geology Section.

Portions of this article are adapted from Kansas DOH: "How do I Plug a Dug Well - Fact Sheet", Kansas Department of Heatlh and Environment, cited in detail below, and from other sources cited below.

Must an Un-Used Well Always be Abandoned by Filling In?

Dug well in the living room (C) InspectApedia.com G.H.

Well perhaps not, particularly if there is some chance that the well may be needed in the future, but at the very least the well needs a safe and secure cover.

It's not uncommon to find old dug wells that end up inside of a building, usually because new construction expanded the building to surround the old well, or less-common, because a well was dug in the basement of a home.

Both of these situations are shown in our photos below. The well in the livingroom photo (above) was contributed by InspectApedia.com reader GW. Notice that a safety grille (somewhat too open in my OPINION) has been isntalled.

The flimsy wood cover over the dug well in the basement of the New York home shown below was unsafe and, of course, nothing protected the santiation of the well against basement water entry - a common problem in the area.

Basement dug well with unsafe cover (C) Daniel Friedman at InspectApedia.com

References & research on proper well abandonment procedures

Water well bore hole decommissioning by grouting is recommended by the Australian government - cited & discussed at InspectApedia.com

Illustration: Decommissioning water bore holes by fully grouting is the preferred method for abandoning a non-flowing or out-of-use bore in Australia - cited just below.

[Click to enlarge any image]

...


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Reader Comments, Questions & Answers About The Article Above

Below you will find questions and answers previously posted on this page at its page bottom reader comment box.

Reader Q&A - also see RECOMMENDED ARTICLES & FAQs

Is this access well using dangerous vermiculite insulation? - Identify unusual well casing material.

Outdoor access well insulation materials (C) InspectApedia.com John To be clear, what the “cylinder” I’m asking about is the slightly grey-colored one with the stone covering the tin top to it.

The white pvc (with the possible vermiculite under it) came out of that grey cylinder. Thanks

@John, another pic related to my question below. Thank you

Not sure if the picture I’m trying load is visible. I’m trying to find out what the tube going into the ground in the picture is.

I does not seem to serve an obvious function from what I can see. The inside of the cylinder has insulation inside of it adheres to it (fiberglass I think). When I removed the pvc tube inside of it, I can now see that some material fell out of it (a handful or so).

I’m questioning if it may be vermiculite. It’s outdoors.

I’d like to remove it so that it doesn’t get tracked in with the dogs.

I was thinking to wet the area a bit and then place the material in a garbage bag.

I’m not sure of best disposal site but I can leave the sealed bag in garage until I can determine that. - On 2021-11-13 by John - I

On 2021-11-13 by (mod) - Shallow Well Insulation: effort to protect shallow well access from freezing?

@John,

Thank you for an interesting insulation-identity question and the photos of the mystery “gray cylinder” in your yard and insulation you found therein. That looks like a shallow water well, perhaps with insulation to permit efforts to pump water from the well even in freezing water.

About the insulation:

I can’t see much but whatever the material is, if it’s that spilled material around the bottom of what looks like a white PVC pipe surrounding a metal rod or pipe, it looks like a very small amount of material that might simply be gently swept into a garbage bag and put out with your trash.

(A large amount of waste insulation might, in some communities, be disposed-of as construction waste).

INSULATION IDENTIFICATION GUIDE

includes photos of just about every type of building and mechanical systems insulation; those will help you identify what insulation you see.

If you think the insulation material is vermiculite, you may know that some (not all) vermiculite contains asbestos - the reason you’re asking about this in the first place.

HOW TO IDENTIFY VERMICULITE INSULATION

About that gray cylinder with green plywood top and cover stone:

1. What is that mystery gray cylinder?

Understanding the purpose of your mystery "cylinder" may be important.

2. What are the components being insulated?

From just the photo I can't say what is that gray cylinder with green-painted delaminating plywood "cover" held in place by a stone nor can I say what insulation material was used or why, though often insulation used outdoors shows a concern for freezing, such as a water pipe access or control.

Are you in a freezing climate?

Peterkin Papers consult the wise Lady from Philadelphia for commonsense advice about tricky problems - cited & discussed at InspectApedia.com 1960 book cover from the 1880 edition of Peterkin PapersLet's look further.

When we’re faced with the mystery of what’s inside an access opening like the one in your photo, and considering that most of our readers are smart but are also often unfamiliar with the topic of their question, I remember the Wise Lady from Philadelphia ( Lucretia P. Hale's - the Peterkin Papers) who would tell us what to do about the questions just posed:

LIFT OFF THE COVER AND LOOK into the opening, take a photo, using flash if needed, and SHOW US what you see.

Perhaps it's an access opening to operate or to inspect a building system or component like drainage or water supply.

Thank you again for a helpful question. Do post photos of what you find inside.

Illustration: The Peterkin Papers and the Wise Lady from Philadelphia - discussed below

Consult the Wise Lady from Philadelphia

Illustrated above in this discussion is our adaptation of an antique copy of the back cover of Hale’s Peterkin Papers illustrates the benefit of trying something straight-forward when faced with a puzzle.

When the Peterkin’s piano was delivered it was set into the living room with the keyboard against the wall.

The Peterkins might have installed or opened an existing window to permit playing the piano from outside but in cold weather that wasn’t much fun and special fingerless gloves would be needed, and the home's heating bills would skyrocket - a contemporary concern today as winter approaches and this winter's heating fuel costs are expected to rise significantly.

The Wise Lady from Philadelphia would offer the Peterkins a better solution. Turn the piano around and close the window.

On 2021-11-13 by John - More photos of the access well: water at bottom

Outdoor access well insulation materials (C) InspectApedia.com John\

Ok thank you, I agree that there was an emphasis to insulate this thing. I just took a picture looking down the grey cylinder.

Outdoor access well insulation materials (C) InspectApedia.com John

There is now water down there whereas before there was not. We had about 2 inches of rain yesterday and the tin cover for the pipe is and probably was never fully watertight. Thanks for you help

We have another well in the yard distance away that has the wires inside do you expect for a functioning well. Would you figure it’s safe to say that this shallow well is out of commission and probably not attached to the house plumbing?

On 2021-11-13 by Inspectapedia Com Moderator (mod) - abandon old un-used well - properly

@John,

That sounds reasonable;

You can take a look at your house plumbing, follow the water pipes; you should see pipes connected only to a line coming in from your in-use well.

And looking down into the "old well" you don't see any pipes exiting the well (below ground) nor do any above-ground pipes go into the building?

That'd be an answer too.

Then see WELL ABANDONMENT PROCEDURE

Outdoor access well insulation materials (C) InspectApedia.com John

On 2021-11-13 by John - cylinder sounds like metal

@Inspectapedia Com Moderator,

I just looked at that cylinder a little better. It definitely hard and almost sounds like metal as I hit my ring to it.

We have a well maybe 30 feet away which I know is connected to the house.

We had a recent plumbing issue, which led me to pull off the pvc tube in the picture.

At that time (about a month a go, we were looking at bare ground (about 4 ft down, so I can’t see that as being a well.

I’m thinking that trying to put the tube back in as I found it is the best thing to do (and cleaning up the material on the ground).

Although I don’t know what the cylinder is made of, any problems with it potentially containing asbestos? Thanks

This Q&A series was posted originally

at INSULATION INSPECTION & IMPROVEMENT

On 2021-11-13 by Inspectapedia Com Moderator (mod) - hard metal well casing won't be transite

@John,

Hard metal won't be transite. It wont' be nor contain asbestos.

On 2019-04-22 by Charlie What is the proper method to abandon a hand dug well in Fairfax County Virginia

What is the proper method to abandon a hand dug well in Fairfax County

On 2019-04-22 by (mod) - How to abandon a hand dug well in Virginia

Charlie,

Typically a dug well is abandoned by filling the hole with clean rubble and soil.

For detailed questions about abandoning your dug well you can of course contact the Fairfax County Division of Environmental Health directly at the Fairfax County Environmental Health Services office, 10777 Main Street, Fairfax VA 22030 Email: hdehd@fairfaxcounty.gov Tel: 703-246-2201 - TTY 711

But first take a look at this

  • VIRGINIA LAW on WATER WELL ABANDONMENT [PDF] Virginia Law, Administrative Code 12VAC5-630-450. Well abandonment., Statutory Authority §§ 32.1-12 and 32.1-176 of the Code of Virginia. original source: https://law.lis.virginia.gov/admincode/title12/agency5/chapter630/section450/

where you can read the details of what Virginia law requires when abandoning a well.

Below we excerpt portions of the Virginia code that appear to pertain to your case of abandoning a dug well in Fairfax County.

Watch out: The requirements are different from the procedure for abandoning a drilled well using a well casing.

Virginia Law on How to Abandon a Well

A. Well abandonment is governed jointly by the Department of Environmental Quality and the Department of Health pursuant to § 62.1-44.92(6) of the Ground Water Act of 1973 (Repealed). In addition, the abandonment of any private well governed by this chapter, or any private well abandoned as a condition of a permit issued under this chapter, shall be administered by the Department of Health in conformance with this section.

B. A temporarily abandoned well shall be sealed with a water-tight cap or well head seal. Such a well shall be maintained so that it will not be a source or channel for contamination to ground water during temporary abandonment.

C. Permanent abandonment. The object of proper permanent abandonment is to prevent contamination from reaching ground water resources via the well. A permanently abandoned well shall be abandoned in the following manner:

1. All casing material may be salvaged.

2. Before the well is plugged, it shall be checked from land surface to the entire depth of the well to ascertain freedom from obstructions that may interfere with plugging (sealing) operations.

3. The well shall be thoroughly chlorinated prior to plugging (sealing).

4. Bored wells and uncased wells shall be backfilled with clean fill to the water level. A two-foot-thick bentonite plug shall be placed immediately above the water level. Clean fill shall be placed on top of the bentonite plug and brought up to at least five feet from the ground surface.

The top five feet of the well casing, if present, shall be removed from the bore hole. If an open annular space is present around the well casing, the annular space shall be filled with grout to the maximum depth possible, but less than or equal to 20 feet.

A one-foot-thick cement or bentonite grout plug that completely fills the bore void space shall be placed a minimum of five feet from the ground surface.

The remaining space shall be filled with clean fill which is mounded a minimum of one foot above the surrounding ground surface. Bored wells or uncased wells abandoned in this manner shall be treated as wells with respect to determining the minimum separation distance to sources of contamination listed in Table 3.1.

The location of these wells shall be permanently marked for future location.

5. Wells constructed in collapsing material shall be completely filled with grout or clay slurry by introduction through a pipe initially extending to the bottom of the well. Such pipe shall be raised, but remain submerged in grout, as the well is filled.

6. Wells constructed in consolidated rock formations or which penetrate zones of consolidated rock may be filled with sand or gravel opposite the zones of consolidated rock. The top of the sand or gravel fill shall be at least five feet below the top of the consolidated rock and at least 20 feet below land surface. The remainder of the well shall be filled with grout or clay slurry.

7. Other abandonment procedures may be approved by the division on a case by case basis.

8. Test and exploration wells shall be abandoned in such a manner to prevent the well from being a channel for the vertical movement of water or a source of contamination to ground water.

9. When bored wells are bored and a water source is not found, and the casing has not been placed in the bore hole, the bore hole may be abandoned by backfilling with the bore spoils to at least five feet below the ground surface. A two-feet-thick bentonite grout plug shall be placed at a minimum of five feet from the ground surface.

The remainder of the bore hole shall be filled with the bore spoils.

On 2015-04-23 by Robert Smith

How to fill in an old hand dug water well, located very close to house and situated in a sheltered structure.

On 2015-05-18 by (mod)

Robert

Why not fill the well with stone rubble and follow the well abandonment procedures given in the expert sources above on this page?

 

Thank you to our readers for their generous comments

On 2015-09-23 by Durandana

Hello, and thank you very much for sharing this information on how to properly abandon a well.

Many times this step goes undone as you think it wont be a problem, especially if it's on private land. I think it's always good to be responsible and to abandon wells in the proper way.

On 2015-09-23 by (mod)

Thanks Beaman Well Drilling for the comment.

Our system and policy don't permit commenters to post links and ads but if you contribute even the smallest suggestion, content, or correction to InspecApedia.com we are happy to cite and link to contributors.

 

...

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Citations & References

In addition to any citations in the article above, a full list is available on request.

  • Akgün, H. "An assessment of borehole sealing performance in a salt environment." Environmental Geology 31, no. 1-2 (1997): 34-41.
  • Barclay, Ian, Jan Pellenbarg, Frans Tettero, Jochen Pfeiffer, Harold Slater, Timo Staal, David Stiles, Geoff Tilling, and Chris Whitney. "The beginning of the end: a review of abandonment and decommissioning practices." Oilfield Review 13, no. 4 (2001): 28-41.
  • Brush, Richard E. "Wells Construction. Hand Dug and Hand Drilled. Appropriate Technologies for Development. Manual M-9." (1982).
  • Cunningham, Alfred B., Ellen Lauchnor, Joe Eldring, Richard Esposito, Andrew C. Mitchell, Robin Gerlach, Adrienne J. Phillips, Anozie Ebigbo, and Lee H. Spangler. "Abandoned well CO2 leakage mitigation using biologically induced mineralization: current progress and future directions." Greenhouse Gases: Science and Technology 3, no. 1 (2013): 40-49.
  • Escolero, O. A., L. E. Marin, B. Steinich, A. J. Pacheco, S. A. Cabrera, and J. Alcocer. "Development of a protection strategy of karst limestone aquifers: the Merida Yucatan, Mexico case study." Water Resources Management 16, no. 5 (2002): 351-367.
  • Gass, Tyler E., Jay H. Lehr, and Harold W. Heiss. Impact of abandoned wells on ground water. Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Research and Development, Robert S. Kerr Environmental Research Laboratory, 1977.
  • Handbook of suggested practices for the design and installation of ground-water monitoring wells. National Water Well Association, 1989.
  • Hou, Zhengmeng, Lars Wundram, Robert Meyer, Meinhardt Schmidt, Steffen Schmitz, and Patrick Were. "Development of a long-term wellbore sealing concept based on numerical simulations and in situ-testing in the Altmark natural gas field." Environmental Earth Sciences 67, no. 2 (2012): 395-409.
  • Jimenez, J. A., and R. J. Chalaturnyk. "SPE/ISRM 78196." (2002).
  • Kansas DOH: "How do I Plug a Dug Well - Fact Sheet", Kansas Department of Heatlh and Environment, - retrieved 31 Jan 2015 original source: http://www.kdheks.gov/waterwell/down
  • Kopp, Andreas, Philip John Binning, K. Johannsen, R. Helmig, and H. Class. "A contribution to risk analysis for leakage through abandoned wells in geological CO 2 storage." Advances in Water Resources 33, no. 8 (2010): 867-879.
  • Lapham, Wayne W., Franceska D. Wilde, and Michael T. Koterba. Guidelines and standard procedures for studies of ground-water quality: selection and installation of wells, and supporting documentation. US Department of the Interior, US Geological Survey, 1997.
  • Mainguy, M., P. Longuemare, A. Audibert, and E. Lécolier. "Analyzing the risk of well plug failure after abandonment." Oil & Gas Science and Technology-Revue de l'IFP 62, no. 3 (2007): 311-324.
  • Nagelhout, A. C. G., M. G. R. Bosma, P. J. Mul, G. G. Krol, J. F. G. van Velzen, J. S. Joldersma, S. G. James, B. Dargaud, G. J. R. Schreuder, and F. Théry. "Laboratory and Field Validation of a Sealant System for Critical Plug-and-Abandon Situations." SPE drilling & completion 25, no. 3 (2010): 314.
  • Preston, C., M. Monea, W. Jazrawi, K. Brown, S. Whittaker, D. White, D. Law, R. Chalaturnyk, and B. Rostron. "IEA GHG Weyburn CO 2 monitoring and storage project." Fuel Processing Technology 86, no. 14 (2005): 1547-1568.
  • Scherer, George W., Michael A. Celia, Jean-Herve Prevost, S. Bachu, R. Bruant, A. Duguid, R. Fuller, S. E. Gasda, M. Radonjic, and W. Vichit-Vadakan. "Leakage of CO2 through abandoned wells: Role of corrosion of cement." Carbon Dioxide Capture for Storage in Deep Geologic Formations 2 (2005): 827-848.
  • Washington State DOE, "Abandoned Wells, Problems and Solutions", Washington State Department of Ecology, POB 46600 Olymnpia WA 98504, retrieved 31 Jan 2015, original source: https://fortress.wa.gov/ecy/publications/publications/96br097.pdf
  • Washington State DOE, "Decomissioning of Abandoned Wells", Washington State Department of Ecology, retrieved 31 Jan 2015, original source: http://www.ecy.wa.gov/programs/wr/wells/abandon-wells.html
  • In addition to citations & references found in this article, see the research citations given at the end of the related articles found at our suggested

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