Here we outline methods to improve the water quantity or spring yield from water springs and also methods to improve the water quality: potability, odors, etc. in spring water.

This article series describes using springs for drinking water and explains issues with spring water sanitation.

How to Improve a Spring or Increase the Yield of a Spring as Water Source

Illustration: excerpted and adapted from "SPRING WATER TAPPING." [PDF] Andrew Tayong, 2003, cited in detail below. We recommend this work as a clear, understandable primer on spring water, its sources, properties, uses.

Excerpt: The spring water quantity

The quantity of water a spring produces is known as its yield. Information about the yield is crucial in the decision-making process for the tapping of a spring. Yield is studied in terms of flow rate and consistency.

Variation in the yield of a spring during the dry season and the rainy season is an important criterion to determine whether the spring is a suitable source.

If the ratio between the highest yield in the rainy season and the yield in the dry season is below 20, then the spring has an acceptable consistency and can be regarded as a reliable source in both wet and dry seasons.

Take into account that the highest and the lowest yield do not occur at the beginning of the rainy season and at the end of the dry season but typically a couple of weeks (or even months) later, depending on the soil characteristics.

It follows that a proper feasibility study of a spring source should last for at least one year. A longer duration is preferred as there may be dry and wet years.- (Tayong 2003 p. 158)

Before undertaking a project to increase the amount of water available from a spring water source, you will need to

1. Understand where your spring water originates: is it surface runoff, groundwater, an true underground spring?
   
   Locate the spring eye as that may be the most-profitable spot to spend energy in cleaning and development of spring yield.
   
   Definitions of water spring, spring eye, and spring box are
   
   at SPRINGS as WATER SUPPLY
   
2. Understand the spring's history and underlying geology to predict how the spring is likely to suffer the effects of weather changes due to global warming (Negi, 2004)
   
   The amount of water that flows from springs depends on many factors, including the size of the caverns within the rocks, the water pressure in the aquifer, the size of the spring basin, and the amount of rainfall. - (USGS 2021)
3. Review the sanitation requirements for your springwater as discussed here and in this article series

That said, here are some suggestions for improving the water yield of your spring:

• Improve the size and quality of the springbox or container - this step can, by itself, increase the reserve of springwater -
  
  and improve the spring's protection from surface runoff to improve its quality.
  
  See SPRING BOX BUILD, REPAIR
• Improve the spring yield: Clean the spring eye or source bed of debris, remove blockages to water flow in to the spring, and in some cases remove overgrowth of vegetation. See (Kremer 2007) for a discussion of the benefits of spring cleaning.
  
  Simple improvements up-slope from the spring eye, such as surface drains or berms placed to slow the movement of runoff waters, permitting more rain-water to seep into the soil, can improve the aquifer that feeds a spring, thus improving spring yield.
• Improve spring water quality: Improve the surrounding lands feeding the spring to improve sanitation by choice of crops (where possible, of course) (Dabney 2001)

Research on Spring Water Yield Improvement

• Agarwal, Avinash, N. K. Bhatnaga, R. K. Nema, and Nitin K. Agrawal. "Rainfall dependence of springs in the Midwestern Himalayan Hills of Uttarakhand." Mountain Research and Development 32, no. 4 (2012): 446-455.
• Dabney, S. M., J. A. Delgado, and D. W. Reeves. "Using winter cover crops to improve soil and water quality." Communications in Soil Science and Plant Analysis 32, no. 7-8 (2001): 1221-1250.
  Abstract:
  
  This article reviews literature about the impacts of cover crops in cropping systems that affect soil and water quality and presents limited new information to help fill knowledge gaps. Cover crops grow during periods when the soil might otherwise be fallow.
  
  While actively growing, cover crops increase solar energy harvest and carbon flux into the soil, providing food for soil macro and microrganisms, while simultaneously increasing evapotranspiration from the soil. Cover crops reduce sediment production from cropland by intercepting the kinetic energy of rainfall and by reducing the amount and velocity of runoff
  
  . Cover crops increase soil quality by improving biological, chemical and physical properties including: organic carbon content, cation exchange capacity, aggregate stability, and water infiltrability. Legume cover crops contribute a nitrogen (N) to subsequent crops.
  
  Other cover crops, especially grasses and brassicas, are better at scavenging residual N before it can leach. Because growth of these scavenging cover crops is usually N limited, growing grass/legume mixtures often increases total carbon inputs without sacrificing N scavenging efficiency. Cover crops are best adapted to warm areas with abundant precipitation.
  
  Water use by cover crops can adversely impact yields of subsequent dryland crops in semiarid areas. Similarly, cooler soil temperatures under cover crop residues can retard early growth of subsequent crops grown near the cold end of their range of adaptation. Development of systems that reduce the costs of cover crop establishment and overcome subsequent crop establishment problems will increase cover crop utilization and improve soil and water quality.
• Edberg, Stephen C., Henri Leclerc, and John Robertson. "Natural Protection of Spring and Well Drinking Water Against Surface Microbial Contamination. II. Indicators and Monitoring. Parameters for Parasites." Critical reviews in microbiology 23, no. 2 (1997): 179-206.
• Evenson, R.E. GROUND-WATER RECONNAISSANCE at PINNACLES NATIONAL MONUMENT, CA [PDF] U.S. Department of Interior, National Park Service, (1982)
  Abstract:
  Ground-water supplies at Pinnacles National Monument have been obtained from springs that occur in fractures and along bedding planes of volcanic flows and deposits, and from springs discharged from perched water in a sedimentary fanglomerate formation. The spring-water yield is barely adequate to supply existing camp facilities, and therefore a supplemental water supply is necessary before existing campgrounds can be expanded.
  
  This supplemental water can be supplied by good-quality ground water obtained from shallow wells drilled in the alluvium of Chalone Creek. The yield of properly constructed wells in this area should exceed 10 gallons per minute
• [6] Hart, Will, "Protective Structures For Springs: Spring Box Design, Construction and Maintenance", Will Hart M.S. Candidate School of Forest Resources & Environmental Science Master’s International Program Michigan Technological University www.cee.mtu.edu/peacecorps. [PDF copy]. 2003 for the requirements of CE 5993 Field Engineering in the Developing World.
• Kremer, Michael, Jessica Leino, Edward Miguel, and Alix Peterson Zwane. "Spring cleaning: Rural water impacts, valuation, and property rights institutions." The Quarterly Journal of Economics 126, no. 1 (2011): 145-205.
  Abstract:
  Using a randomized evaluation in Kenya, we measure health impacts of spring protection, an investment that improves source water quality. We also estimate households' valuation of spring protection and simulate the welfare impacts of alternatives to the current system of common property rights in water, which limits incentives for private investment.
  
  Spring infrastructure investments reduce fecal contamination by 66%, but household water quality improves less, due to recontamination. Child diarrhea falls by one quarter. Travel-cost based revealed preference estimates of households' valuations are much smaller than both stated preference valuations and health planners' valuations, and are consistent with models in which the demand for health is highly income elastic.
  
  We estimate that private property norms would generate little additional investment while imposing large static costs due to above-marginal-cost pricing, private property would function better at higher income levels or under water scarcity, and alternative institutions could yield Pareto improvements.
• Kremer, Michael, Jessica Leino, Edward Miguel, and Alix Peterson Zwane. "SPRING CLEANING: A RANDOMIZED EVALUATION OF SOURCE WATER QUALITY IMPROVEMENT." [PDF] Quarterly Journal of Economics 4, no. 2 (2007): 09-30.
  Abstract:
  Abstract:
  
  Diarrhea, particularly from water-related causes, kills almost two million children annually. We study the impact of source water quality improvements achieved via spring protection on diarrhea prevalence and other outcomes in rural Kenya using a randomized evaluation. Spring protection leads to large improvements in source water quality as measured by the fecal indicator bacteria E. coli.
  
  There are smaller gains in home water quality. Reported child diarrhea incidence falls by a marginally significant one fifth. Spring protection appears less cost effective than point of use water treatment in reducing diarrhea. Households greatly increase their use of protected springs, and these changes in household water source choices are used to derive revealed preference estimates of willingness to pay for improved water quality in a travel cost analysis.
  
  Households are willing to pay US$4.52-9.05 per year on average for protected spring water. Assuming the principal benefit of improved water quality is better child health implies that households are willing to pay US$0.83-1.67 to avoid one child diarrhea episode.
  
  Stated preference valuations for spring protection yield much higher willingness to pay estimates, sometimes by a factor of three, casting doubt on the reliability of stated preference methods to capture valuations for environmental amenities in a setting like ours.
• Kulkarni, Himanshu, Jayesh Desai, and Mohammad Imran Siddique. "Rejuvenation of Springs in the Himalayan Region." Water, Climate Change, and Sustainability (2021): 97-107.
  Abstract:
  Spring water continues to remain the lifeline of the Himalayan population. Nearly one-third of the population depends completely on spring water for its domestic needs and often for meeting livelihood requirements. Himalayan springs are depleting and despite their significance, there is very little attention towards it.
  
  A majority of springs are drying up due to a variety of factors working in tandem, affecting the lives and livelihoods of the people dependent on springs. Rejuvenation of springs could offer a climate-resilient solution for livelihoods and ecosystems in hills and mountain regions in the Himalaya, enhance water access, and contribute to achieve one or more of the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs).
  
  An aquifer-based, springshed management approach holds much promise in the revival of springs. The approach, based on many experiences, combines science, partnerships, and community participation in spring revival. It holds promise across the region and is creating policy traction on spring water.
• Nastiti, Anindrya, Sander V. Meijerink, Mark Oelmann, A. J. M. Smits, Barti S. Muntalif, Arief Sudradjat, and Dwina Roosmini. "Cultivating innovation and equity in co-production of COMMERCIALIZED SPRING WATER in peri-urban Bandung, Indonesia." [PDF] Water Alternatives 10, no. 1 (2017): 160.
• Negi, Girish CS, and Varun Joshi. "Rainfall and spring discharge patterns in two small drainage catchments in the Western Himalayan Mountains, India." Environmentalist 24, no. 1 (2004): 19-28.
  Abstract Excerpt:
  
  Relationship between rainfall and spring discharge study is important to understand hydrological behaviour of springs and water resources management.
• [12] Niskanen, Matthew, "The Design, Construction, and Maintenance of a Gravity-Fed Water System in the Dominican Republic," Department of Civil & Environmental Engineering, Michigan Technological University, Houghton, MI, 2003
• Shah, Shruti, Ashish Tewari, and Bhawna Tewari. "Impact of Human disturbance on forest vegetation and water resources of nainital catchment." Nature and Science 7, no. 10 (2009): 74-78.
• [7] Skinner, B., Protecting Springs- An Alternative to Springboxes. Prepared by Brian Skinner and Rod Shaw for the Water Engineering and Development Center (WEDC), Loughborough University, Leicestershire

• Tayong, Andrew. "SPRING WATER TAPPING." [PDF] Small Community Water Supplies: Technology, people and partnerships (2003).
  
  Excerpt:
  Spring water is usually fed from a sand or gravel water-bearing soil formation called an aquifer, or a water flow through fissured rock. Where solid or clay layers block the underground flow of water, it is forced upwards to the surface. The water may emerge either in the open as a spring, or invisi-bly as an outflow into a river, stream, lake or the sea (Fig. 8.1). Where the water emerges in the form of a spring, it can easily be tapped.
  
  The oldest community water supplies were, in fact, often based on springs and they remain a favoured source, because the water usually has a high natural quality and intake arrangements are relatively straightforward.
  
  That suits both the engineers helping to design the water supply system, and the community members who will have to look after it.
  
  Because of their popularity, most natural springs have been developed in one way or another as drinking water sources. However, a proper feasibility study, application of some basic design principles and vigilance in protecting the spring and its catchment area will usually lead to improvements in the quantity, quality and sustainability of many such supplies.
  
  As in the rest of the book, there is an overriding principle that community members should be fully informed and closely involved in decisions about the tapping, use and protection of spring water sources.
• Tonmukaykul, N., D. J. Moot, and A. Mills. SPRING [Seasob] WATER USE EFFICIENCY OF SIX DRYLAND PASTURES IN CANTERBURY New Zealand [PDF] In Proceedings of the Agronomy Society of New Zealand, vol. 39. 2009.
• Tsakiris, G., and D. Alexakis. "Karstic spring water quality: the effect of groundwater abstraction from the recharge area." Desalination and Water Treatment 52, no. 13-15 (2014): 2494-2501.
  Abstract Excerpt:
  The paper examines the impact of simultaneous groundwater abstraction from the recharge area of a karstic spring (upstream of the spring) on the water quantity and quality of the spring.
• Unger, Paul W., and Merle F. Vigil. "Cover crop effects on soil water relationships." Journal of soil and water conservation 53, no. 3 (1998): 200-207.
  Abstract:
  Cover crops help control erosion, prevent nutrient leaching, fix nitrogen, improve sail conditions, and protect seedlings, but also use water, thus affecting soil water relationships far the next crop. Effects are positive when cover crops are managed to improve infiltration and decrease evaporation, or to remove water from a wet soil to allow timely establishment of the next crop.
  
  Effects are negative when they limit water for the next crop or aggravate a wet soil condition. Cover crops are better suited to humid and subhumid regions where precipitation is more reliable than to semiarid regions where precipitation is limited.
  
  Where cover crops are not used, use of conservation tillage that involves crop residue retention on the soil surface helps conserve soil water and provides many of the benefits of cover crops, except for nitrogen fixation, soil nutrient (especially nitrate) uptake to prevent leaching, excess water removal, and additional organic matter inputs.
• USGS, SPRINGS and the WATER CYCLE [PDF] USGS Water Science School, retrieved 2021/06/27 original source: https://www.usgs.gov/special-topic/water-science-school/science/springs-and-water-cycle?qt-science_center_objects=0#qt-science_center_objects
• Wiseman, Keith. "A guide to technology selection and planning for village water supplies utilising groundwater and spring water sources." Master's thesis, University of Cape Town, 1989.
  Abstract:
  Providing a clean, potable supply of water is a critical problem in remote or underdeveloped rural areas. Water is needed for drinking, cooking, washing and bathing, but is often only available from traditional sources such as springs, rivers or ponds. These water sources are in most cases contaminated by livestock and cattle, and situated far from homesteads. During dry periods they often dwindle or dry up completely.

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Reader Q&A - also see RECOMMENDED ARTICLES & FAQs

Question: how to improve our spring-fed water system

We saw your very interesting set of articles online. Do you have any knowledge of someone in east TN who could help us improve our spring fed water system? Thanking you in advance for your reply. - Anonymous by private email 2021/06/19

Follow-up

This is my parents property that we inherited from them. There are 1870’s log cabins on the property. My folks lived there for 30 years and got by with only their spring fed water system. They had very low water needs, much less than we might need. There were a few times that they were genuinely concerned about running out of water.

The basis system is tapping into a spring, guessing it to be about 3000’ from the main cabin. I’ll have to check it out more thoroughly on this trip, but I don’t believe they have much of an appropriate catch basin at the spring. I do know for certain that the collected water travels down the steam bed via 3/4” garden hose. It finally gets collected into a covered spring hose.

The flow into the spring house from the garden hose is just a trickle.

From the spring house it is pulled up into the cabin via electric well pump in the cabin basement.

We’re hoping to learn how to maximize our water flow. Any excess water just ends up back into the stream anyway, so we’d love to have much greater flow than we actually need.
I can take pictures to send you if that is something that you would be interested in looking at.

Moderator reply:

SPRING YIELD IMPROVEMENT contains new material I've added for you.

It will be helpful to know more specifics about your spring, construction, location, surrounding terrain and to see photos of the spring area, terrain, spring-box, and also to have an idea of the water use requirements.

Knowing the underground hydrology is of course critical to understanding your spring's actual water source as well as what water spring yield you can expect.

...

Continue reading at SPRINGS as WATER SUPPLY - home, or select a topic from the closely-related articles below, or see the complete ARTICLE INDEX.

Or see these

Recommended Articles

• BACTERIA LEVELS in WATER, INTERPRETATION
• SPRINGS as WATER SUPPLY
• SPRING BOX CONSTRUCTION
• SPRING BOX REPAIR
• SPRING YIELD IMPROVEMENT
• WATER TREATMENT EQUIPMENT CHOICES - home
• WELLS CISTERNS & SPRINGS - home

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