Questions & Answers about handrails & handrailings for stairs, steps, & other locations:

FAQs about choosing, installing, & codes or standards for handrails or handrailings (los pasamanos).

In this article series here we give stair rail construction & installation specifications & building code citation for handrailings, i.e. stairway handrails.

This article series includes photographs, and examples of handrailings & stair & railing safety defects and gives checklists & images used in inspecting indoor or outdoor stair railings or handrails and related conditions for safety and proper construction. Our page top photo illustrates a well-designed handrailing and stair guardrail at the CIA.

Handrail Specifications Requirement & Installation FAQs

These questions & answers about handrails and handrailing codes, standards, and construction were posted originally

at HANDRAILS & HANDRAILINGS - home; ge sure to review that article.

On 2020-10-13 - by (mod) -

Anon

You've made some good suggestions, though in my OPINON the same handrail concerns that apply in particular along stairs, balconies, decks, retaining walls will pertain along tunnel walkways too.

So you'd add snag hazards and discontinuities or obstructions, and as for scratches, if those could injure someone who's sliding their hand along the rail, that'd be a concern.

The topic of cleaning handrails takes on additional significance during the current COVID pandemic;

On 2020-10-13 by Anonymous

What to check in routine and detailed inspection of the following thinks.

1. Tunnel walkway and handrail surface scratches.

2. Tunnel walkway and handrail loose bolt connection.

3. Tunnel walkway and handrail corrosion.

4. Tunnel walkway and handrail cleaning

On 2019-12-05 - by (mod) -

Frank: lower than what?

What I see in your photo looks like a guardrail on a walk-out rooftop balcony - you certainly don't want someone to fall off of the roof!

GUARDRAIL HEIGHT REQUIREMENTS discusses the minimum height requirements for safety;

However, if blocking your view is the concern, subject to local code official approval, you have another option- installing glass guards.

On 2019-12-04 by frank dino

hello, My builder installed our guard rails on our 3rd floor balcony really high. The guard rail sits on a 2ft brick wall. Can we have them lower?

On 2018-04-16 by Tom Carrigan

Are there requirements regarding the number and locations of handrails on entrance stairways of ADA approved shuttle buses in Massachusetts?

On 2018-01-31 - by (mod) -

Perfectly fair question for which I don't have enough orotate avancer. We need to review your specific building standard, for which I need a more complete name in order to find it.

In short, where there are Life Safety hazards involved you want some basis for being confident that all of your handrails are safe.

On 2018-01-3 by hammoudeh

if i have many hand-rails, should i apply force each stanchion or i can chose randomly (my reference is B.S. standard)

how often shall we applied unfactored force for testing purposes according to B.S. standard?

Question: Methods for raising the top height of a stair handrailing that is too short - in Oregon

In addition, in another complex in Oregon, the insurance company suggests the balcony or stair railing are less than 42 inches high. Railing less than 42 inches high do not adequately protect adults and children from falling.

It is recommended that the insured replace the balcony and stair railings that are less than 42 inches tall with railings exceeding 42 inches in height to reduce fall potential. - Tami 7/23/12

Reply: Methods for Raising the height of an existing metal stair rail or guardrail:

Tami:

This is also easy to do as an add-on project by welding an extension on top of the existing railing. Take a look at the page top photo in this article and you'll see a different example of an add-on rail. You didn't say how high is the existing railing top but I'm guessing it's 36" or more above the step tread surface.

If that's the case, welding on an additional tier of railing, while it creates multiple horizontal bars, will result in a railing in which both horizontal members are high enough above the step level that the hazard of making the railing "climbable" to a child is minimized - check with your local building officials to be sure they'll approve the addition before actually executing it.

Quoting stair railing heights from the document above:

• Stair rails (hand railings) installed after March 15,1991, must be not less than 36 inches (91.5 cm) in height
• Top edges of stair rail systems used as handrails must not be more than 37 inches (94 cm) high nor less than 36 inches (91.5 cm) from the upper surface of the stair rail system to the surface of the tread. (If installed before March 15, 1991, not less than 30 inches [76 cm]).
• It is important to distinguish between the requirements for handrailings along a stairway and guardrailings along a horizontal walking surface such as a balcony or deck.

It seems to me you want to ask your building officials for a height clarification, including a clarification on the maximum handrail height they consider safe (reachable) along a stairway.

If you and the officials are discussing not a stairway railing but guard rails on a balcony or landing, please take a look at our separate article on guardrails at Guardrails on Balconies & Landings where you'll see a 42" minimum guardrail height requirement for buildings newer than 1970. In that article we warn against interpreting building codes to permit stairway handrailings to be placed too high as they could be beyond reach or safe grasp.

Don't confuse the handrail (along a rising or descending stairway) with guardrails (along horizontal walking surfaces such as a balcony or deck).

Keep us posted, and send along photos of the before and after railing improvements - that will permit further comment and may assist others.

Question: what are the reinspection requirements for jobsite guardrails, handrails, & stairways?

5/14/2014 Lawrence Spence said:

I can find all of the OSHA regs for handrails/guardrails but I can't find requirements for re-inspection of the above. Weather, fire, and factory operation conditions can all affect the useful life of handrails/guardrails but nothing is ever mentioned about when they should be re-tested.

Safety departments only say you should not lean on a railing, because it may have been corroided causing failure.

But, retesting before work begins in an area where guard rails provide the major fall safety protection is never mentioned in the quideslines for such work. Any suggestions on this issue?

Reply: OPINION: reinspect by a qualified expert based on any change that would raise question about the safety or condition of the handrail, guardrail, or stairway

Excellent point Lawrence. I've looked at this before and found a few general guidelines but nothing very explicit. I'll research again.

The language I find is found, for example in STICCS (power point) of STICCS: Strengthen Training Infrastructure and Competency in Construction Safety, was created by the Trimmer Foundation under the Occupational Safety and Health Administration Susan Harwood Training Grant No. SH-18802-09-60-F-51.
2010
and says (using excavation-fall hazards as an example)

A competent person must make daily inspections of excavations, areas around them and protective systems: Ref. 29 CFR 1926.651(k)

Before work starts and as needed to reinspect,
After rainstorms, high winds or other occurrence which may increase hazards, and
When you can reasonably anticipate an employee will be exposed to hazards.

Or this OSHA reference on scafflolding:
www.osha.gov/Publications/OSHA3252/3252.html

A "competent person" must inspect the scaffolding and, at designated intervals, reinspect it.

My OPINION (I'm not an expert on this point) is that the intent is to recognize that reinspection is needed at the worksite but the timing of that reinspection is undefined and should be made "by a qualified expert" (also undefined).

Reinspection should be scheduled when ANY condition or event would lead a reasonable, prudent site manager to recognize that conditions may have affected the safety of the system.

Rain, snow, wind, freezing conditions, structural progress, change of use, age or time, or other factors could be examples of those conditions.

To OSHA 5/14/2014

I've contacted OSHA and posed the following question

I publish public safety information at InspectApedia.com on stair & guardrail standards & fall protection. A question arises from various readers about the need for re-inspection of jobsite guardrails, stairs, handrails as conditions change for any reason.

I've been asked and expressed my OPINION in offering an answer but we and our readers would certainly benefit from and appreciate any guidance from OSHA on when reinspections should be scheduled.

You can see my current response to this question at

inspectapedia.com/Stairs/Handrails.php#FAQ

If OSHA does not have any reinspection guidelines and would like assistance in drafting one for review & comment I'd be glad to assist (pro bono).

Contact Information for OSHA in the U.S.

OSHA, an agency of the U.S. Department of Labor, maintains a public contact web page to report unsafe conditions in the workplace or to ask a workplace safety or healtyh-related question.

• Ask OSHA a question via this online form: https://www.osha.gov/html/Feed_Back.html
• In a workplace health or safety emergency, call 1-800 321-OSHA (6742) and press 2 or 3 or by TTY at 1-877-889-5627

Below is OSHA's reply to our query - basically OSHA's reply was not helpful

1. did not address our specific question

2. offers "whistle blower" and other contact information.

One might infer from this not-very-useful-reply [shown below] that asking OSHA a real question can be disappointing, or that that OSHA's answer to Lawrence's question about how to determine when a jobsite stair or rail needs to be reinspected is that OSHA is leaving that problem up to employees who are on their own to notice something unsafe - hopefully before a fall or injury.

---------
Reply from OSHA rec'd 5/16/2014 - basically a worthless non-answer!

Thank you for your inquiry to OSHA concerning internet posting / social media. You can find the information you requested in the OSHA resource(s) listed below:

OSHA does not endorse, certify, or recommend any service or product, nor does OSHA review, monitor, or comment on social media and internet postings.

The following provide links to OSHA?s worker rights, complaint, and whistleblower web pages:

Worker rights and complaint information ?
www.osha.gov/workers.html
www.osha.gov/as/opa/worker/complain.html

Whistleblower Program information ?
www.whistleblowers.gov/index.html
www.whistleblowers.gov/complaint_page.html

In addition, the following link to OSHA's frequently asked questions page may also be useful:
www.osha.gov/OSHA_FAQs.html

To find contact information for your local OSHA area office, please use this weblink - www.osha.gov/html/RAmap.html.

Please note that the URL(s) provided above are not live links. To access a link, copy the entire URL and paste it into your web browser.

This response is for informational purposes only and does not constitute an official communication
from the U.S. Department of Labor, or the Occupational Safety and Health Administration.

Question: last few steps open without railing - does this meet code?

(May 24, 2014) Nick S said:

The wall on the side without the railing ends half way across the 5th stair from the bottom, then then last 4 steps are open into the 1st floor living room.

It is 38 inches to the top of the 5th stair that has a wall across half of it, and 30 inches to the top of the 4th stair, which is the first fully open step. Does this meet code for Lancaster, PA? Thanks!

Reply: no

Nick. I wonder if the open stair side was so built because of lack of travel space at the bottom step. Anyway most likely your local building inspector will want a handrail and guard.

If there is lack of travel distance of at least 36" I'd go to a platform and turn design.

Question: resin panel connected to stair handrail - top edge above handrail ok?

(June 24, 2014) Anonymous said:

I have an application where a resin panel is connected to a stair handrail. It satisfies the 50lb load requirement. But the top edge of the panel is 4" above the handrail. Does the top edge of the panel need to be subjected to the 200 lb point load and 50 lb/ft load (separately) since it is raised above the handrail?

Reply:

We replied to this in a private email as well: You raise an interesting question and one open to OPINION. In my opinion, and I am NOT a code authority, if a fall against a resin panel used as the enclosing part of a guard railing could dislodge it onto occupants below that would be a hazard that would suggest the top be secured to the same loads you cite.

Question: brick stairs ok indoors?

(June 25, 2014) Indoor brick staircase said:

It is legal to have an indoor brick staircase?

Reply: yes

Indoor

I've seen no regulation that constrains the stair materials so long as the measurements comply with standards.

Question: requirement for handrailing returns along a balcony?

Handrail question on a high rise residential project said:

I'm in Washington state and I have a condition that I'm having trouble finding clarity on using the IBC 2009 code. Situation: We have residential balconies in a high rise mixed use building. We have provided guardrails that meet code. As part of a design decision we have included a "handrail" as part of the glass balcony.

My question is does this handrail, that isn't required by code, still have to follow IBC 1012.6 Handrail extensions, requiring that handrail return to the wall?

I realize that this location is not a stair, but the city inspector has raised the question of snagging, etc. Any help and reference to code sections would be helpful.
Thanks!
Tim

Reply:

Tim

If I understand correctly we're discussing handrailings along a balcony - which is not itself a stairway or passage where a handrail is normally required. So the return to wall requirement would seem moot. However, IF in fact people could walk past the end of the extra handrail such that clothing or a purse could be snagged, that might form a trip and fall hazard - though one less extreme than if it were along a stairwell.

In sum I don't think we'll find a return requirement discussed for balconies but we will find it discussed under stairs and landings.

Question: handrail continuity

(Aug 2, 2014) matthew g cutts said:
in a residential town home if i put a railing on the side of the steps that are widest where the stairs are fully enclosed and turn 180 degrees with no landing (4 pie shaped steps) does the railing have to be continuous or can it be 3 separate railings?

Reply:

I'm not a code official Matthew, but by my reading omission of a landing does not change the requirement for continuity of handrailings. They can be installed in segments but should be continuous through the run of the stair.

Your local code official has final say.

Question: handrails and stairways in a private residence in California

(Aug 12, 2014) Cynthia said:
I have a question about handrails and stairways in a private residence in California. We have a cabin that was built in the 50s and there is an attic that doesnt have a handrail. If it is only used by my family and no improvements are expected is there a building code that says that one must upgrade an old building (I understand the safety issue

Reply:

Cynthia

A check with your *local* building department will give a legally authoritative answer. Generally you're not required to bring older buildings to current code specifications until an event such as a new building permit or property sale.

The requirement for handrails to an attic depends on the nature of use of the space and the type of access stair. For example a space used for storage and not for occupancy may have a different requirement.

Question: architect finds 1980's handrails lower than current standards

(Nov 3, 2014) Warren said:
As an architect, I see handrails installed as late as the 1980's much lower than is currently permitted - maybe 30" above the nose. Was this permitted by code at the time or were they improperly installed?

Reply:

Warren, quite possibly yes, depending on the country and the local jurisdiction. Still I would suggest improving handrail of guardrail hight to current standards.

A defense of "it was legal at the time" is a common one but not much use to someone who falls.

I've also seen property managers, responsible for maintaining property safety, in trouble for failing to notify owners of visually obvious hazards.

Question: buy a metal hand railing

(Nov 5, 2014) Anonymous said:
what would be the normal code for a apartment complex 2nd floor balcony handrail in michigan newer apartment

(Dec 1, 2014) Cindy said:
I need to put up a metal 10' hand railing down my basement steps and can't locate where to purchase it.

Reply:

Cindy any building supply store should carry metal amd/or wood hand-railings as well as mounting brackets.

Question:

(Jan 8, 2015) Jeff in NC said:
I have just completed redoing an existing basement staircase in my 90-year-old house. The stairwell is 31 1/2" wide with walls on both sides. It was impossible to widen because of the existing walls and framing. My question is, should I add a handrail, or would this make the stairs less safe by narrowing the passage even more?

Reply:

Jeff I understand the issue but nonetheless I would not want to see a stairway with no handrailing.

Question: citation for load specifications for handrails on passenger trains

31 March 2015 MechanicalDude said:

I am looking for force and load requirement specifications associated with handrails on passenger trains. I've already looked at CFR Section 49 and can't find any load requirements - only size and location of rails. Any ideas?

Reply:

Interestinq question MD - I haven't seen a spec for passenger trains - it's a bit off my rails.

I suggest contacting the people who are concerned with rail safety, the U.S. Department of Transportation (DOT) Federal Railroad Administration, Passenger Rail Division - see https://www.fra.dot.gov/

You'll have to do a little digging as some of the rail standards will pertain to workers, bridges, walkways.
Start with www.fra.dot.gov/eLib/Details/L02442
which discusses securement of handrail to locomotive body

a special memo 15 June 1998 quoted below followed by railroad car handrailing research citations:

U.S. Department of Transportation
Federal Railroad Administration

Reply to Att. of: MP&E 98-48

Date: June 15, 1998 Reply to Att. of: MP&E 98-48

Subject: Securement of Handrail to the Locomotive Carbody North American Cab Structure

From: Edward R. English Director, Office of Safety Assurance and Compliance

To: Regional Administrators, Deputy Regional Administrators,
Motive Power & Equipment Specialists and Inspectors

Some locomotives having the wide body North American cab configuration has the upper end of the front vertical handrail not properly secured to the carbody. The Safety Appliance regulation, Section 231.30(e) (1) ( I ) states in part that each vertical handhold... be securely fastened to the locomotive with one half (1⁄2) inch or larger bolts or rivets....

Some locomotives have the upper end of the front vertical handhold bolted to a bracket, welded to that section of the carbody that comprises the outside of the front sand reservoir. Although there appears to be adequate strength in the welded bracket, this is not permitted because the regulation specifically requires that the handhold be securely fastened with a bolt or rivet.

However, FRA has permitted welding of some permanent fixtures on locomotives to which safety appliances are mechanically fastened. The welding was made under quality controlled conditions with a full enclosure penetration weld of the fixture to the locomotive, using modern shop welding practices which provide 100 percent full strength requirements of the joint. This condition, if found, is not to be taken as a defective condition, but should be brought to the railroad’s attention for corrective action.  

- U.S. DOT, FRA, Retrieved 1 April 2015, original source https://www.fra.dot.gov/eLib/Details/L02442

Railroad car handrail safety research:

• Clarkson, Robert T. "Section 17 (a) of the Securities Act of 1933: Implication of a Private Right of Action." UCLA L. Rev. 29 (1981): 244.
  Excerpt:
  ruled that in promulgating a safety regulation requiring handrails on the cars, Congress contemplated
• Ellerkamp Jr, John, Ed Nowak, and Gail Mattson. "Traffic Safety: Worker Safety & Health, BNL Traffic Regulations" (2007, 2014), retrieved 1 April 2015, original source: http://public.bnl.gov/docs/sbms/Shared/Traffic%20Safety.pdf
  Excerpt:
  Sample Railroad and Railroad Car Health & Safety Plan Requirements
  Excerpts:
  This subject area describes the procedures for following BNL traffic requirements on-site. The Laboratory uses New York State Vehicle and Traffic Laws at BNL as guidance to develop our rules and the Laboratory Protection Division enforces BNL traffic safety rules.
  also cites:
  29 CFR 1910 Subpart T, Commercial Driving Operations
  29 CFR 1910.25, Portable Wood Ladders
  29 CFR 1910.26, Portable Metal Ladders
  29 CFR 1910.28, Safety Requirements for Scaffolding
• Maki, Brian E., Stephen D. Perry, Carol Y. Scovil, Amy L. Peters, Sandra M. McKay, Tracy A. Lee, Philippe Corbeil, Geoff R. Fernie, and William E. McIlroy. "Interventions to promote more effective balance-recovery reactions in industrial settings: new perspectives on footwear and handrails." Industrial health 46, no. 1 (2008): 40-50.
• MASUBUCHI, Michie, and Seiji IWAKURA. "Design Strategy for Interior Space in High Speed Rail: A Case Study of the Kyushu Shinkansen Tsubame." In Proceedings of the Eastern Asia Society for Transportation Studies, vol. 2011, no. 0, pp. 236-236. Eastern Asia Society for Transportation Studies, 2011.
• McCoid, Allan H. "Federal Railroad Safety Acts and the FELA: A Comparison, The." Ohio St. LJ 17 (1956): 494.
• Md Dali, Zuraini, Hazreena Hussein, and Imaduddin Abdul Halim. "Wheelchair access in STAR LRT Stations in Kuala Lumpur." (2004).
• Nishioka, Moto, Tatsuo Ishibashi, Kenji Tanaka, and Naoko Kimura. "Study on Evaluation Method for Comfortable Straps and Handrails Based on Survey of Actual Usage: Actual Usage of Straps and Handrails in Railroad Coaches (Part 3)." In 11th International Conference on Mobility and Transport for Elderly and Disabled Persons. 2007.
• Nishioka, Moto, and Tatsuo Ishibashi. "Actual Conditions of Using the Strap and Handrail in the Railroad Coach (Part 1): From the Result of Observational Research." In 10th International Conference on Mobility and Transport for Elderly and Disabled People. 2004.
• Suvorova, T. A. "Comfort for all passengers speed railways." Теорія та практика дизайну 2 (2012).
• Travers, A. F. "Ramps and rails." BMJ: British Medical Journal 302, no. 6782 (1991): 951.
• Williams, D. A. R. Y. L. "Disability standards for accessible public transport 2002." Canberra: Australian Government (2002).
• Xiao, Jun, Wei-dong Luo, and Sen Yuan. "Ergonomic Design of Bus Handrails for Southwest China [J]." Machine Building & Automation 2 (2011): 012.
• Zhang, Bing Chen, Wei Min Guo, and Yan Qun Wang. "Research on Harmony of Interior System of Railway Passenger Cars." Applied Mechanics and Materials 44 (2011): 1554-1557.
• Zhang, Bing Chen, Wei Min Guo, and Yan Qun Wang. "Research on seat design of railway passenger car." Key Engineering Materials 474 (2011): 260-264.

Handrail extension requirements for ramps are also illustrated at RAMPS, ACCESS.

Question:

(May 18, 2015) Rob Craven said:
i have a gentle sloping area leading to the back yard. I would like to put in steps (currently walk down a grassy slippery area). A handrail would greatly detract from the landscaping. What are my options?

Reply:

Rob

Check with your local building department about what they will accept. For example you may be able to descend the hill in a series of long stepped walkway sectrions, each of just one step down. You'll need a sketch of the total stair length (run) and total stair rise (height change) over that distance to make sense of any design.

Question:

(May 21, 2015) Becky said:
Is Coffman's C6040 hand rail Life Safety compliant?

Reply:

Becky

Regardless of whether or not a flexible rope or cable type "handrail" is code approved or listed, in my OPINION (which is just that) no flexible wavy handrailing is particularly secure. I understand that in some locations such as in the descending narrow high-rise-step stairwell of Goodrich Castle a nearly-vertical rope is all you're going to get, but generally, ick.

Question:

(June 1, 2015) Bill said:
home with 5 raiser is a hand rail required??

Reply:

Bill:
almost certainly yes.

In the article above you'll see a detailed answer to your question at

"When Are Handrails Required? How many steps, what total rise height requires a handrail?"

let me know if questions remain.

Question: metal handrail design

(Aug 5, 2015) Question about metal handrail design said:

Releasing you from all liability, I'd like to ask you some questions about building metal ADA approved handrails on both sides of a 48" wide concrete stair walkway with (6)ea. 36" long x 5 1/2" rise steps intersecting at one end with a public sidewalk;

1.) Do I need to include intermediate rails on both sets of handrails?

2.) If intermediate rails are required, can they be horizontal beams typical to the top handrail welded in between my posts?

3.) Do I need to include vertical slats in between posts with less than 4" spaces between them?

4.) Do I need to include 12" extensions at the ends of both handrails?

5.) If 12" extensions are required, can I go outward at the ends of both the handrails at 90 degrees with them?

Reply:

Q

For an authoritative answer you'll want to consult a design professional who knows your site specifics as well as consulting your local building department.

From the article above (there are exceptions to this)

Stairways shall have handrails on each side, and every stairway required to be more than 88 inches (2235 mm) in width shall be provided with not less than one intermediate handrail for each 88 inches (2235 mm) or required width. Intermediate handrails shall be spaced approximately equally across with the entire width of the stairway.

Handrails must conform to graspability rules. Your "horizontal beam" doesn't sound graspable to me.

The requirement for balusters ("vertical slats") with 4" spacing is a child safety feature needed along the open sides of stairs, not along a mid-stair handrailing nor along a handrailing attached to an enclosed wall.

4. Yes.

5. I don't understand.

Question:

(Aug 13, 2015) Neil Rogers said:
Hello Simple question My employer has a number of old buildings. In two of these buildings (built 1920s) or before there are wooden handrails that protect from an open stairwell but which at 30inches above each stair are less than the current Regulations for new buildings and installation ie at least 900mm.

Our buildings are open to members of the public and occasionally (but not regularly_) to children and young people. In another building (some years ago) a similar handrail had an elevated parallel metal bar installed to bring it up to a safer height. I would like to treat these other handrails in the same way but can anyone advise on the likely requirement - it has never been picked up as an issue by a Building Inspector. Thankyou

Reply:

Neil

Simply put, of course you can modify an existing handrailing to bring it to modern standards of height, space out from the wall, continuity, and graspability. But it might be less costly in the case you describe to remove the old and install new handrailings.

Question:

(Sept 7, 2015) Break in handrail said:
I would like to know what's the rule for railing in a theatre where you need to break the handrailing to enter a row?

(Oct 14, 2015) Corey said:
Do i need a handrail if steps are entirely enclosed by block wall with a railing fastened on top on both sides

(Nov 6, 2015) Anonymous said:
What are the requirements for a hand rail termination when there is short bottom step (less than 1/2 the riser height )

Reply:

Anon this sounds like a trick question. A short bottom step - is itself a trip hazard that's not going to be eliminated by a proper handrail, though the handrail might help someone who is tripping.

Question:

2015/12/27 Arlette Rachel Twersky said:
Is there a way to safely install a grab bar on a door frame at the top of a staircase? The hand rail runs out before the person can safely finish the top step and get their balance coming through the doorway from the livingroom, seven stairs below, to the kitchen. Also. Would a wooden grab rail such as those built for out door decks be acceptable? I am an occupational therapist.

Reply:

IN my opinion a grab bar, to be safe, should be bolted to structural framing; be sure your grab bar is not bolted just to trim or drywall.

...

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Or see HANDRAIL FAQs-2 - more-recently posted Q&A about handrails

Or see these

Recommended Articles

• HANDRAILS & HANDRAILINGS - home
• WHEN ARE HANDRAILINGS REQUIRED

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