Sewage Pathogens & Contaminants in Fruits and Vegetables - research article

Septic system contaminants: is it safe to eat fruits or vegetables grown over or close to septic systems?
Questions & Answers about fruits & vegetables produced from soils irrigated with septic wastewater or septage
References

Click to Show or Hide Related Topics

InspectAPedia tolerates no conflicts of interest. We have no relationship with advertisers, products, or services discussed at this website.

Results of a study of health hazards of consuming fruits and vegetables that may contain contaminants produced from irrigation with septic effluent.

Bacterial pathogens recovered from vegetables irrigated by wastewater in Morocco

Anyone working on or around or owning a septic tank should be sure to see SEPTIC & CESSPOOL SAFETY. We discuss the risk of tree or plant damage to septic drainfields at SEPTIC SYSTEMS, PLANTS OVER.

"Bacterial Pathogens Recovered from Vegetables Irrigated by Wa stewater in Morocco", Y. Karamoko, K. Ibenyassine, M. M. Ennaji, B. Anajjar, R. Ait Mhand, M. Chouibani, Journal of Environmental Health, June 2007. This article has also been re-published by thefreelibrary.com.

At our home page on this topic, SEWAGE CONTAMINANTS in FRUIT / VEGETABLES, we pose a series of questions regarding the article below, and we suggest some follow-up research. We also express an opinion about the comparative pathogenic contamination risks identified by this research article and the risks likely to be faced by growing fruits or vegetables over or near septic drainfields.

Readers should also see our safe-planting discussion at Gardens Near Septics and see our discussion of pathogens in sewage at SEWAGE PATHOGENS in SEPTIC SLUDGE: what makes up the contents of residential sewage? and also SEWAGE NITROGEN CONTAMINANTS - a second important type of septic effluent contamination.

Abstract

The authors obtained 50 vegetable samples from various regions in Morocco and examined them to determine the micro biological quality of these products. Aerobic count, coliform, enterococci, and Staphylococcus areus were evaluated. This analysis revealed high levels of enterococci, fecal coliforms, and total coliforms. No coagulase-positive Staphylococcus aureas was detected in any of the samples analyzed.

Biochemical identification of Enterobacteriaceae showed the presence of Citrobacter freundii (28 percent), Enterobacter cloacae (27 percent), Escherichia coli (16 percent), Enterobacter sakazakii (12 percent), Klebsiella pneamoniae (17 percent), Serratia liquefaciens (11 percent), and Salmonella arizonae (0.7 percent). The results clearly demonstrate that vegetables irrigated with untreated wastewater have a high level of microbiological contamination. Consequently, these vegetables may be a threat for the Moroccan consumer and may be considered a serious risk to Moroccan public health.

No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (See the original article citation in the Journal of Environmental Health, June 2007 listed above and at the end of this page.)

SEPTIC SYSTEMS - INTRODUCTION

An increase in consumption of fresh fruits and vegetables worldwide has been paralleled by an increase in the number of foodborne illnesses attributed to fresh products. Numerous reports have indicated that raw vegetables may harbor potential foodborne pathogens (Beuchat, 1996). In particular, tomatoes, cantaloupes, and sprouts have been linked to outbreaks of salmonellosis (Guo, Chen, Brackett, & Beuchat, 2001), and outbreaks of illnesses caused by Escherichia coli O157:H7 have been associated with melon, apple cider, lettuce, and radish sprouts (Breuer et al., 2001). Moreover, coleslaw, cabbage, potatoes, radishes, bean sprouts, and cucumbers contaminated with Listeria monocytogenes have been linked to disease outbreaks (Shearer, Strapp, & Joerger, 2001), and salad vegetables also may be contaminated with Campylobacter (Evans, Ribeiro, & Salmon, 2003).

In Morocco, vegetable products have been in great demand in recent years. Since the rate of precipitation has been very low during these last decades, wastewater is increasingly being used in agriculture. Little information is available on the number of human foodborne-illness outbreaks that have occurred from consumption of raw vegetables. The use of raw sewage to irrigate crops is an important mechanism that helps to propagate conditions conducive to cholera and typhoid fever (Castro-Rosas & Escartin, 2000). Increases in foodborne illnesses during the summer are not fully understood, although fresh produce likely plays a role since it is consumed in higher quantities during the summer.

The study reported here investigated the occurrence of pathogenic bacteria in vegetables irrigated by untreated wastewater in Morocco. Irrigated vegetables do not undergo any control before being exposed in the markets, after which they may be eaten cooked or raw. The purpose of the study was 1) to determine the bacterial quality of vegetables irrigated with untreated wastewater, 2) to sensitize farmers to the dangers from use of untreated wastewater for irrigation, and 3) to elucidate the risk to Moroccan public health.

Materials and Methods

Samples

A total of 50 vegetable samples were procured for bacteriological examination. Vegetables of various types were obtained from several wastewater-irrigated agricultural regions in Morocco. Sampling was conducted from August 2002 to July 2004. The vegetable samples were collected in sterile polyethylene bags, and steps were taken to avoid contamination of the vegetables by soil or other contamination sources. Each sample was collected in triplicate to prevent sampling error. The vegetables were tomato, radish, cucumber, eggplant, potato, pepper, garden pea, gourd, zucchini, artichoke, broad bean, turnip, onion, French bean, and lettuce.

Vegetables of various types were obtained from several wastewater-irrigated agricultural regions in Morocco. Sampling was conducted from August 2002 to July 2004. The vegetable samples were collected in sterile polyethylene bags, and steps were taken to avoid contamination of the vegetables by soil or other contamination sources. Each sample was collected in triplicate to prevent sampling error. The vegetables were tomato, radish, cucumber, eggplant, potato, pepper,

All the samples were transported to the laboratory under low temperature (<7[degrees]C) and stored at 4[degrees]C until testing. They were analyzed within 20 hours of sampling. Each sample was rinsed several times with sterile distilled water to eliminate the soil. Before analysis, 25 g of each sample was homogenized for two minutes with 225 mL of 0.1 percent sterilepeptone water with a Model 400 Stomacher (Seward Medical, London) and serially diluted.

Bacteriological Analysis

Using the spread-plate technique and 100 [micro]L from the serial dilution, the authors prepared duplicate plates for the determination of aerobic plate counts (APC) Enterobactericiceae, fecal coliforms, total colilorms, Staphylococcus,and Streptococcus.

Aerobic plate counts were made with plate count agar. (Merck), and plates were incubated at 30[degrees]C for 48 hours. Then all colonies on plates were counted. Enterococci counts were made with Slanetz and Bartley agar (Biokar). The plates were incubated at 37[degrees]C for 48 hours, and all typical colonies (pink or dark red with a narrow whitish border) were counted. For the coliform counts, violet red bile agar (from Merck) was used for direct plating, and plates were incubated at 37[degrees]C for 24 hours and 42C for total coliforms and fecal coliforms, respectively.

Typical colonies were round, red to pink, 0.5 to 2 mm in diameter, and surrounded with a red-to-pink halo. Staphlococcus aureus counts were determined with Baird-Parker Agar (Difco) with egg yolk--tellurite emulsion, and plates were incubated at 37[degrees]C for 24 hours to 48 hours. Colonies selected from the agar surface were examined under microscope for Gram stain and were tested for catalase reaction and then for coagulase activity with plasma rabbit (Biokar).

To isolate Salmonella spp., we pummeled a 25-g sample in a stomacher with 225 mL of buffered peptone water and pre-enriched the homogenate 37[degrees]C for 18 hours. A 100-[micro]L sample was subcultured into 10 mL of Rappaport Vassiliadis Broth (Difco) and enriched at 41.5[degrees]C for 24 hours and 48 hours. One mL of the pre-enrichment broth was simultaneously inoculated into 10 mL of selenite cysteine broth and enriched at 37[degrees]C for 22 hours and 48 hours. Both enrichment broths were streaked onto xylose lysine deoxycholate agar (Merck) and Salmonella-Shigella agar, and incubated at 37[degrees]C for 22 hours.

For selective plating, presumptive Salmonella colonies from selective plates were confirmed with the API 20E identification system (BioMerieux). The Enterobacteriaceae strain was isolated with Levine-EMB agar (Merck). The plates were incubated at 37[degrees]C for 18 hours, and colonies growing on the plates were examined under a microscope for Gram stains and tested for catalase and oxydase reactions. For identification of all strains, the API 20E identification system (BioMerieux) was used.

Results

These analyses showed high aerobic-plate, total-coliform, fecal-coliform, and enterococci counts. Coagulase-positive Staphylococcus aureus was not detected in any samples (Table 1).

The frequencies with which the bacteria were recovered from samples are given in Table 2. Citrobacter freundii and Enterobacter cloacae were recovered most frequently (from 28 percent of samples). Other Gramnegative bacteria that were frequently isolated were Escherichia coli (16 percent), Enterobacter sakazakii (12 percent), Klebsiella pneumoniae (17 percent), and Serratia liquejaciens (11 percent).

Discussion

Foodborne diseases remain an important public health threat worldwide, and one of the most important food safety hazards is associated with raw vegetables. The large number of total microorganisms and fecal-contamination indicators (E. coli, coliform, and enterococci) detected in the vegetable samples we surveyed indicates a potential health hazard to consumers. Madden has discussed potential sources of microbial contamination of fresh fruit and vegetables during growth, harvest, distribution, and processing (1992).

The bacteria that the authors found on samples belonged most frequently to the Citrobacter-Enterobacter-Serratia group of Enterobacteriaceae. Although usually regarded as human pathogens, these members of Enterobacteriaceae family have also been recognized as inhabitants of soil and plants (Wright, Kominos, & Yee, 1976). Thus, vegetables may serve as a reservoir from which the bacteria named above can colonize and infect a susceptible host.

In many countries, urban wastewater is used to irrigate agricultural land. This way of disposing of urban sewage water has several advantages. Wastewater contains a lot of nutrients, which increase crop yields without use of fertilizer. Furthermore, sewage water is an alternative water source in arid and semi-arid areas where water is scarce. Some disadvantages are that wastewater can contain heavy metals, organic compounds, and a wide spectrum of enteric pathogens that may have a negative impact on the environment and human health.

The study reported here demonstrates that a potential for disease transmission exists when wastewater is used for irrigation. Pathogens that have been transported by wastewater can survive in soil or on crops. The actual risk of disease transmission, however, is related to whether this survival time is long enough to allow transmission to a susceptible host. The crop and the field are the link between the pathogen in the wastewater and the potential for infection. The factors controlling transmission of disease are agronomic examples of such factors are the crop grown, the irrigation method used to apply wastewater, and cultural and harvesting practices.

Consumption of salad irrigated by wastewater has been found to be responsible for shigellosis in England (Frost, McEvoy, Bentley, Andersson, & Rowe, 1995). Numerous opportunities exist for attachment and penetration of pathogenic bacteria into lettuce in the field, as well as during harvesting, processing, and marketing, especially when a contaminated product is exposed to water or is damaged (Takeuchi et al., 2001). Guo and co-authors have demonstrated that soil and water are potential reservoirs from which Salmonella can contaminate tomatoes (Guo, Chen, Brackett, & Beuchat, 2002). The pathogen can survive in most soils in high numbers for at least 45 days and can infiltrate the tissues of tomatoes during contact with inoculated soil.

This mechanism may explain the discovery of Salmonella arizonae on tomatoes in the investigation reported here. The hydroponics system used in another study provided a controlled environment in which to study the possible association of Salmonellae with aerial tissues, with minimal concerns about environmental contamination or temperature fluctuation (Guo, Iersel, Chen, Brackett, & Beuchat, 2002).

That study provided evidence that Salmonellae can be transported from an inoculated nutrient solution to the hypocotyls, cotyledons, stems, and leaves of young tomato plants. In addition, the work of Guo and co-authors (2001) revealed the ability of Salmonella to survive on or in tomato fruits throughout the course of plant growth, flowering, fruit development, and fruit maturation (2001).

Another study showed that Escherichia coli O157:H7 may be present not only on outer surfaces, but also in the inner tissues and stomata of cotyledons of radish sprouts grown from seeds experimentally contaminated with the bacterium (Itoh et al., 1998). Indeed, this mechanism can be inferred from the fact that enteric pathogens were isolated from inside vegetables during our investigation.

Numerous foodborne diseases caused by Salmonella enterica and Escherichia coli O157:H7 have been associated with contaminated alfalfa clover, and bean sprouts (Puohiniemi, Heiskanen, & Siitonen, 1997). Constant moisture, nutrients released by the sprouting seeds, and warm temperatures are conducive to the growth of human bacterial pathogens such as S. enterica and E. coli O157:H7 (Charkowski, Barak, Sarreal, & Mandrell, 2002).

The fact that some bacteria and not others are present can be explained by a difference in their capacity to attach to plants. For example, Salmonella enterica attaches as well as plant-associated bacteria and significantly better than E. coli to alfalfa sprouts (Barak, Whitehand, & Charkowski, 2002).

Conclusion

The authors' study demonstrated that the vegetables analyzed may be an important source of foodborne bacterial-illness outbreaks in humans, especially when the vegetables are consumed raw. In addition, vegetables of these types can also be a vehicle for Giardia cysts and Ascaris eggs (Amahmid, Asmama, & Bouhoum, 1999). To protect public health, the use of raw sewage in the irrigation of the vegetable culture must be prohibited.

So it is necessary to consider the generalized program of wastewater treatment in Morocco. Moreover, the requirements for treated wastewater must respect the sanitary standards for agricultural reuse. There is an urgent need for development and validation of standard methods of eliminating the pathogenic microorganisms from raw vegetables.

Acknowledgements: This work was financially supported by the PARS and PROTARS programs of the Moroccan National Research Council. The authors acknowledge Hassan Tajnari (Service for Protection of Plants, Ministry for Agriculture, Marrakech-Morocco) and Meryem Aakill (Division of Plant Health Control, Ministry for Agriculture, Rabat-Morocco) for their assistance during sampling and for their technical help.

Corresponding Author: M.M. Ennaji, Professor, Laboratory of Virology and Hygiene & Microbiology, Department of Biology, Faculty of Science and Technology, University Hassan II-Mohammedia, Mohammedia, Morocco 20650. E-mail: m.ennaji@univh2m.ac.ma.

Table of sewage contaminants in fruits and vegetables

Table 2

Septic & Sewage Pathogens and Contaminants, References & Research Articles

Amahmid, O., Asmama, S., & Bouhoum, K. (1999). The effect of waste water reuse in irrigation on the contamination level of food crops by Giardia cysts and Ascaris eggs. International Journal of Food Microbiology, 49(1-2), 19-26.
Barak, J.D., Whitehand, L.C., & Charkowski, A.O. (2002). Differences in attachment of Salmonella enterica serovars and Escherichia coli O157:H7 to alfalfa sprouts. Applied and Environmental Microbiology, 68(10), 4758-4763.
Beuchat, L.R. (1996). Pathogenic microorganisms associated with fresh produce. Journal of Food Protection, 59(2), 204-216.
Breuer, T., Benkel, D.H., Shapiro, R.L., Hall, W.N., Winnett, M.M., Linn, M.J., Timothy, J.N., Barrett, J., Dietrich, S., Downes, F.P., Toney, D.M., Pearson, J.L., Rolka, H., Slutsker. L., & Griffin, P.M. (2001). A multi-state outbreak of Escherichia coli O157:H7 infections linked to alfalfa sprouts grown from contaminated seeds. Emerging Infectious Diseases, 7(6), 977-982.
Castro-Rosas, J., & Escartin, E.F. (2000). Survival and growth of Vibrio cholerae O1, Salmonella typhi, and Escherichia coli O157:H7 in alfalfa sprouts. Journal of Food Science, 65(1), 162-165.
Charkowski, A.O., Barak, J.D., Sarreal, C.Z., & Mandrell, R.E. (2002). Growth and colonization patterns of Salmonella enterica and Escherichia coli O157:H7 on alfalfa sprouts and the effects of sprouting temperature, i inoculum /in·oc·u·lum/ (-ok´u-lum) pl. inoc´ula material used in inoculation.
Evans, M.R., Ribeiro, C.D., & Salmon, R.L. (2003). Hazards of healthy living: Bottled water and salad vegetables as risk factors for Campylobacter infection. Emerging Infectious Disease, 9(10), 1219-1225.
Frost, J.A., McEvoy, M.B., Bentley, C.A., Andersson, Y., & Rowe, B. (1995). An outbreak of Shigella sonnei infection associated with consumption of iceberg. Emerging Infectious Disease, 1(1), 26-28.
Guo, X., Chen, J., Brackett, R.E., & Beuchat, L.R. (2001). Survival of Salmonellae on and in tomato plants from the time of inoculation at flowering and early stages of fruit development through fruit ripening, said of meat. See curing. . Applied and Environmental Microbiology, 67(10), 4760-4764.
Guo, X., Chen, J., Brackett, R.E., & Beuchat, L.R. (2002). Survival of Salmonellae on tomatoes stored at high relative humidity, in soil, and on tomatoes in contact with soil. Journal of Food Protection, 65(2), 274-279.
Guo, X., Iersel, M.W.V., Chen, J., Brackett, R.E., & Beuchat, L.R. (2002). Evidence of association of salmonellae with tomato plants grown hydroponically in inoculated nutrient solution. Applied and Environmental Microbiology, 68(7), 3639-3643.
Itoh, Y., Sugita-Konishi, Y., Kasuga, E, Iwaki, M., Hara-Kudo, Y., Saito, N., Noguchi, Y, Konuma, H., & Kumagai, S. (1998) Enterohemorrhagic Escherichia coli enterohemorrhagic Escherichia coli EHEC Any of the E coli serotypes–eg O29, O39, O145 that produces shiga-like toxins, causing bloody inflammatory diarrhea, evoking a HUS. See Escherichia coli O157:H7, Hemolytic uremic syndrome. O157:H7 present in radish sprouts. Applied and Environmental Microbiology, 64(4), 1532-1535.
Madden, J.M. (1992). Microbial pathogens in fresh produce--The regulatory perspective. Journal of Food Protection, 55, 821-823.
McMahon, M.A.S., & Wilson, I.G. (2001). The occurrence of enteric pathogens and Aeromonas species in organic vegetables. International Journal of Food Microbiology, 70(1-2),155-162.
Puohiniemi, R., Heiskanen, T., & Siitonen, A. (1997). Molecular epidemiology of two international sprout-borne Salmonella outbreaks. Journal of Clinical Microbiology . 35(10), 2487-2491.
Shearer, A.E., Strapp, C.M., & Joerger, R.D. (2001). Evaluation of polymerase chain reaction-based system for detection of Salmonella enteritidis, Escherichia coli O157:H7, Listeria spp., and Listeria monocytogenes on fresh fruit and vegetables. Journal of Food Protection, 64(6), 788-795.
Takeuchi, K., Hassan, A.N., & Frank, J.F. (2001). Penetration of Escherichia coli O157:H7 into lettuce as influenced by modified atmosphere and temperature. Journal of Food Protection, 64(11), 1820-1823.
Wright, C., Kominos, S.D., & Yee, R.B. (1976). Enterobacteriaceae and Pseudomonas aeruginosa recovered from vegetable salads. Applied and Environmental Microbiology, 31(3), 453-454.

Although most of the information presented in the Journal refers to situations within the United States, environmental health and protection know no boundaries. The Journal periodically runs International Perspectives to ensure that issues relevant to our international constituency, representing over 60 countries worldwide, are addressed. Our goal is to raise diverse issues of interest to all our readers, irrespective of origin. K. Ibenyassine, D.E.S.A. R. Ait Mhand, Ph.D. Y. Karamoko, Ph.D. B. Anajjar, Ph.D. M. Chouibani M.M. Ennaji, Ph.D.

Frequently Asked Questions (FAQs)

...

Ask a Question or Search InspectApedia

Use the search box below to ask a question or to search the InspectApedia.com website.

Ask a Question or Enter Search Terms in the InspectApedia search box just below.

Technical Reviewers & References

Related Topics, found near the top of this page suggest articles closely related to this one.

"Bacterial Pathogens Recovered from Vegetables Irrigated by Wastewater in Morocco", Y. Karamoko, K. Ibenyassine, M. M. Ennaji, B. Anajjar, R. Ait Mhand, M. Chouibani, Journal of Environmental Health, June 2007.
Abstract:
The authors obtained 50 vegetable samples from various regions in Morocco and examined them to determine the micro biological quality of these products. Aerobic count, coliform, enterococci, and Staphylococcus areus were evaluated. This analysis revealed high levels of enterococci, fecal coliforms, and total coliforms. No coagulase-positive Staphylococcus aureas was detected in any of the samples analyzed. Biochemical identification of Enterobacteriaceae showed the presence of Citrobacter freundii (28 percent), Enterobacter cloacae (27 percent), Escherichia coli (16 percent), Enterobacter sakazakii (12 percent), Klebsiella pneamoniae (17 percent), Serratia liquefaciens (11 percent), and Salmonella arizonae (0.7 percent). The results clearly demonstrate that vegetables irrigated with untreated wastewater have a high level of microbiological contamination. Consequently, these vegetables may be a threat for the Moroccan consumer and may be considered a serious risk to Moroccan public health.ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR Copyright of Journal of Environmental Health is the property of National Environmental Health Association and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract.
Contact Us to request a copy of this article stored as BacterialPathogens.pdf if you have difficulty obtaining a copy of this full article for private use. At BACTERIAL PATHOGENS in FRUIT & VEGETABLES is a slightly-rough online copy from thefreelibrary.com
Beuchat, L.R. (1996). Pathogenic microorganisms associated with fresh produce. Journal of Food Protection, 59(2), 204-216.
Breuer, T, Benkel, D.H., Shapiro, R.L., Hall. W.N., Winnett. M.M., Linn, M.J., Timothy, J.N., Barrett. J., Dietrich, S., Downes, EP, Toney, D-M., Pearson, J.L., Rolka. H., Slutsker. L, & Griffin, PM. (2001). A multi-state outbreak of Escherichia coli O157:H7 infections linked to alfalfa sprouts grown from contaminated seeds, Emerging Infectious Diseases, 7(6), 977-982.
Evans, M.R., Ribiero, CD., & Salmon, R.L. (2003). Hazards of healthy Living: Boiled water and salad vegetables as risk Factors For Campylobacter infection. Emerging Infectious Disease, 9(10), 1219-1225.
Guo, X., Chen, j . , Brackett, R.E., & Beuchat. LR. (2001). Survival of Saimonellae on and in tomato plants From the time of inoculation at flowering and early stages of fruit development through fruit ripening. Applied and Environmental Microbiology, 67(10), 4760-4764
Madden, J.M. (1992). Microbial pathogens in fresh produce—The regulatory perspective. Journal of Food Protection, 55, 821-823.
Shearer, A.E., Strapp, CM., & Joerger, R.D. (2001). Evaluation of polymerase chain reaction-based system for detection of Salmonella enteritidis, Escherichia coli O157:H7, Listeria spp., and Listeria monocytogenes on Fresh Fruit and vegetables. Journal of Food Protection, 64(6), 788-795.
"Septic Tank/Drainfield System Fact Sheet", Utah Department of Environmental Quality, Division of Drinking Water, Source Protection Program - (801) 536-4200 Division of Water Quality - (801) 538-6146 Sonja Wallace, Pollution Prevention Coordinator - (801) 536-4477 Environmental Hotline - 1-800-458-0145 - Original source: http://www.drinkingwater.utah.gov/documents/spec_services/pollution_prevention_septic_tanks.pdf
New York State Wastewater Treatment Standards - Individual Household Systems, Appendix 75-A (1990), Public Health Law 201(1)(1).
New York State Alternative Septic System Design Regulations, Wastewater Treatment Standards - Individual Household Systems, Appendix 75-A, of Public Health Law 201(1)(1) 1990.
Advanced Onsite Wastewater Systems Technologies, Anish R. Jantrania, Mark A. Gross, CRC Taylor & Francis, 2006 ISBN 0-8493-3029-7 order a copy from the InspectAPedia bookstore (Amazon.com)
Anish Jantrania, Ph.D., P.E., M.B.A., Consulting Engineer, Mechanicsville VA, 804-550-0389
The Septic System Owners's Manual, Lloyd Kahn, Blair Allen, Julie Jones, Shelter Publications, 2000. ISBN 0-936070-20-X - order a copy from the InspectAPedia bookstore (Amazon.com)
Onsite wastewater treatment systems, Bennette D. Burks & Mary Margaret Minnis. Textbook and reference manual on all aspects of onsite treatment. This is one of the best books we've reviewed on the subject, with an excellent balance of clear simple explanation and solid engineering. Topics: Soil & Site Selection, Hydraulics, System Selection & Design, Wastewater Biology, History & Mythology of Onsite Wastewater Treatment. $49.95, Hogarth House, Ltd., 800-993-2665 x327 order a copy from the InspectApedia bookstore (Amazon.com) or order by telephone 800 -993-2665 x327 (Univ. Wisc. Bookstore)
Mark Cramer Inspection Services Mark Cramer, Tampa Florida, Mr. Cramer is a past president of ASHI, the American Society of Home Inspectors and is a Florida home inspector and home inspection educator. Contact Mark Cramer at: 727-595-4211 mark@BestTampaInspector.com 11/06
Thanks to reader Cheryl Sweetland for email discussion of planting fruit trees (avocado & mango trees) near a septic tank 07/13/2010

Books & Articles on Building & Environmental Inspection, Testing, Diagnosis, & Repair

Our recommended books about building & mechanical systems design, inspection, problem diagnosis, and repair, and about indoor environment and IAQ testing, diagnosis, and cleanup are at the InspectAPedia Bookstore. Also see our Book Reviews - InspectAPedia.

The Home Reference Book - the Encyclopedia of Homes, Carson Dunlop & Associates, Toronto, Ontario, 25th Ed., 2012, is a bound volume of more than 450 illustrated pages that assist home inspectors and home owners in the inspection and detection of problems on buildings. The text is intended as a reference guide to help building owners operate and maintain their home effectively. Field inspection worksheets are included at the back of the volume. Special Offer: For a 10% discount on any number of copies of the Home Reference Book purchased as a single order. Enter INSPECTAHRB in the order payment page "Promo/Redemption" space. InspectAPedia.com editor Daniel Friedman is a contributing author.

Or choose the The Home Reference eBook for PCs, Macs, Kindle, iPad, iPhone, or Android Smart Phones. Special Offer: For a 5% discount on any number of copies of the Home Reference eBook purchased as a single order. Enter INSPECTAEHRB in the order payment page "Promo/Redemption" space.

Inspecting Septic Systems: Online Book, Inspection, Test, Diagnosis, Repair, & Maintenance: our Online Septic Book: Septic Testing, Loading & Dye Tests, Septic Tank Pumping, Clearances, details of onsite waste disposal system inspection, testing, repair procedures.

Advanced Onsite Wastewater Systems Technologies, Anish R. Jantrania, Mark A. Gross. Anish Jantrania, Ph.D., P.E., M.B.A., is a Consulting Engineer, in Mechanicsville VA, 804-550-0389 (2006). Outstanding technical reference especially on alternative septic system design alternatives. Written for designers and engineers, this book is not at all easy going for homeowners but is a text I recommend for professionals--DF.
Builder's Guide to Wells and Septic Systems, Woodson, R. Dodge: $ 24.95; MCGRAW HILL B; TP; Quoting from Amazon's description: For the homebuilder, one mistake in estimating or installing wells and septic systems can cost thousands of dollars. This comprehensive guide filled with case studies can prevent that. Master plumber R. Dodge Woodson packs this reader-friendly guide with guidance and information, including details on new techniques and materials that can economize and expedite jobs and advice on how to avoid mistakes in both estimating and construction. Chapters cover virtually every aspect of wells and septic systems, including on-site evaluations; site limitations; bidding; soil studies, septic designs, and code-related issues; drilled and dug wells, gravel and pipe, chamber-type, and gravity septic systems; pump stations; common problems with well installation; and remedies for poor septic situations. Woodson also discusses ways to increase profits by avoiding cost overruns.
Country Plumbing: Living with a Septic System, Hartigan, Gerry: $ 9.95; ALAN C HOOD & TP; Quoting an Amazon reviewer's comment, with which we agree--DF:This book is informative as far as it goes and might be most useful for someone with an older system. But it was written in the early 1980s. A lot has changed since then. In particular, the book doesn't cover any of the newer systems that are used more and more nowadays in some parts of the country -- sand mounds, aeration systems, lagoons, etc.

Septic & Sewage Pathogens and Contaminants, References & Research Articles

Amahmid, O., Asmama, S., & Bouhoum, K. (1999). The effect of waste water reuse in irrigation on the contamination level of food crops by Giardia cysts and Ascaris eggs. International Journal of Food Microbiology, 49(1-2), 19-26.
Barak, J.D., Whitehand, L.C., & Charkowski, A.O. (2002). Differences in attachment of Salmonella enterica serovars and Escherichia coli O157:H7 to alfalfa sprouts. Applied and Environmental Microbiology, 68(10), 4758-4763.
Beuchat, L.R. (1996). Pathogenic microorganisms associated with fresh produce. Journal of Food Protection, 59(2), 204-216.
Breuer, T., Benkel, D.H., Shapiro, R.L., Hall, W.N., Winnett, M.M., Linn, M.J., Timothy, J.N., Barrett, J., Dietrich, S., Downes, F.P., Toney, D.M., Pearson, J.L., Rolka, H., Slutsker. L., & Griffin, P.M. (2001). A multi-state outbreak of Escherichia coli O157:H7 infections linked to alfalfa sprouts grown from contaminated seeds. Emerging Infectious Diseases, 7(6), 977-982.
Castro-Rosas, J., & Escartin, E.F. (2000). Survival and growth of Vibrio cholerae O1, Salmonella typhi, and Escherichia coli O157:H7 in alfalfa sprouts. Journal of Food Science, 65(1), 162-165.
Charkowski, A.O., Barak, J.D., Sarreal, C.Z., & Mandrell, R.E. (2002). Growth and colonization patterns of Salmonella enterica and Escherichia coli O157:H7 on alfalfa sprouts and the effects of sprouting temperature, i inoculum /in·oc·u·lum/ (-ok´u-lum) pl. inoc´ula material used in inoculation.
Evans, M.R., Ribeiro, C.D., & Salmon, R.L. (2003). Hazards of healthy living: Bottled water and salad vegetables as risk factors for Campylobacter infection. Emerging Infectious Disease, 9(10), 1219-1225.
Frost, J.A., McEvoy, M.B., Bentley, C.A., Andersson, Y., & Rowe, B. (1995). An outbreak of Shigella sonnei infection associated with consumption of iceberg. Emerging Infectious Disease, 1(1), 26-28.
Guo, X., Chen, J., Brackett, R.E., & Beuchat, L.R. (2001). Survival of Salmonellae on and in tomato plants from the time of inoculation at flowering and early stages of fruit development through fruit ripening, said of meat. See curing. . Applied and Environmental Microbiology, 67(10), 4760-4764.
Guo, X., Chen, J., Brackett, R.E., & Beuchat, L.R. (2002). Survival of Salmonellae on tomatoes stored at high relative humidity, in soil, and on tomatoes in contact with soil. Journal of Food Protection, 65(2), 274-279.
Guo, X., Iersel, M.W.V., Chen, J., Brackett, R.E., & Beuchat, L.R. (2002). Evidence of association of salmonellae with tomato plants grown hydroponically in inoculated nutrient solution. Applied and Environmental Microbiology, 68(7), 3639-3643.
Itoh, Y., Sugita-Konishi, Y., Kasuga, E, Iwaki, M., Hara-Kudo, Y., Saito, N., Noguchi, Y, Konuma, H., & Kumagai, S. (1998) Enterohemorrhagic Escherichia coli enterohemorrhagic Escherichia coli EHEC Any of the E coli serotypes–eg O29, O39, O145 that produces shiga-like toxins, causing bloody inflammatory diarrhea, evoking a HUS. See Escherichia coli O157:H7, Hemolytic uremic syndrome. O157:H7 present in radish sprouts. Applied and Environmental Microbiology, 64(4), 1532-1535.
Madden, J.M. (1992). Microbial pathogens in fresh produce--The regulatory perspective. Journal of Food Protection, 55, 821-823.
McMahon, M.A.S., & Wilson, I.G. (2001). The occurrence of enteric pathogens and Aeromonas species in organic vegetables. International Journal of Food Microbiology, 70(1-2),155-162.
Puohiniemi, R., Heiskanen, T., & Siitonen, A. (1997). Molecular epidemiology of two international sprout-borne Salmonella outbreaks. Journal of Clinical Microbiology . 35(10), 2487-2491.
Shearer, A.E., Strapp, C.M., & Joerger, R.D. (2001). Evaluation of polymerase chain reaction-based system for detection of Salmonella enteritidis, Escherichia coli O157:H7, Listeria spp., and Listeria monocytogenes on fresh fruit and vegetables. Journal of Food Protection, 64(6), 788-795.
Takeuchi, K., Hassan, A.N., & Frank, J.F. (2001). Penetration of Escherichia coli O157:H7 into lettuce as influenced by modified atmosphere and temperature. Journal of Food Protection, 64(11), 1820-1823.
Wright, C., Kominos, S.D., & Yee, R.B. (1976). Enterobacteriaceae and Pseudomonas aeruginosa recovered from vegetable salads. Applied and Environmental Microbiology, 31(3), 453-454.
...

Onsite Wastewater Disposal Books

Onsite Wastewater Disposal, R. J. Perkins; Quoting from Amazon: This practical book, co-published with the National Environmental Health Association, describes the step-by-step procedures needed to avoid common pitfalls in septic system technology. Valuable in matching the septic system to the site-specific conditions, this useful book will help you install a reliable system in both suitable and difficult environments. Septic tank installers, planners, state and local regulators, civil and sanitary engineers, consulting engineers, architects, homeowners, academics, and land developers will find this publication valuable.
Onsite Wastewater Treatment Systems, Bennette D. Burks, Mary Margaret Minnis, Hogarth House 1994 - one of the best septic system books around, suffering a bit from small fonts and a weak index. While it contains some material more technical than needed by homeowners, Burks/Minnis book on onsite wastewater treatment systems a very useful reference for both property owners and septic system designers.
Septic Tank/Soil-Absorption Systems: How to Operate & Maintain [ copy on file as /septic/Septic_Operation_USDA.pdf ] - , Equipment Tips, U.S. Department of Agriculture, 8271 1302, 7100 Engineering, 2300 Recreation, September 1982, web search 08/28/2010, original source: http://www.fs.fed.us/t-d/pubs/pdfimage/82711302.pdf
Soil Percolation Tests soil perc testing guide and instructions
Percolation Testing Manual, CNMI Division of Environmental Quality, PO Box 501304, Saipan, MP 96950
Planting Over Septic System Component", Daniel Friedman (author/editor, InspectAPedia.com), The Innovator, Winter/Spring 2008, BCOSSA, British Columbia OnSite Sewage Association, 201-3542 Blansard St., Victoria BC V8X 1W3 Canada
Save the Septic System - Do Not Flush These Items Down the Toilet, Daniel Friedman, InspectAPedia.com - PDF document, printable
SEPTIC STANDARDS
SEPTIC MAGAZINES
Septic System Owner's Manual, Lloyd Kahn, Blair Allen, Julie Jones, Shelter Publications, 2000 $14.95 U.S. - easy to understand, well illustrated, one of the best practical references around on septic design basics including some advanced systems; a little short on safety and maintenance. Both new and used (low priced copies are available, and we think the authors are working on an updated edition--DF. Quoting from one of several Amazon reviews: The basics of septic systems, from underground systems and failures to what the owner can do to promote and maintain a healthy system, is revealed in an excellent guide essential for any who reside on a septic system. Rural residents receive a primer on not only the basics; but how to conduct period inspections and what to do when things go wrong. History also figures into the fine coverage.
Test Pit Preparation for Onsite Sewage Evaluations, State of Oregon Department of Environmental Quality, Portland OR, 800 452-4011. PDF document. We recommend this excellent document that offers detail about soil perc tests, deep hole tests, safety, and septic design. Readers should also see Soil Percolation Tests and for testing an existing septic system, also see Dye Tests
Grass is Always Greener Over the Septic Tank, Bombeck, Erma: $ 5.99; FAWCETT; MM; This septic system classic whose title helps avoid intimidating readers new to septic systems, is available new or used at very low prices. It's more entertainment than a serious "how to" book on septic systems design, maintenance, or repair. Not recommended -- DF.
US EPA Onsite Wastewater Treatment Systems Manual Top Reference: US EPA's Design Manual for Onsite Wastewater Treatment and Disposal, 1980, available from the US EPA, the US GPO Superintendent of Documents (Pueblo CO), and from the National Small Flows Clearinghouse. Original source http://www.epa.gov/ORD/NRMRL/Pubs/625R00008/625R00008.htm
Water Wells and Septic Systems Handbook, R. Dodge Woodson. This book is in the upper price range, but is worth the cost for serious septic installers and designers. Quoting Amazon: Each year, thousands upon thousands of Americans install water wells and septic systems on their properties. But with a maze of codes governing their use along with a host of design requirements that ensure their functionality where can someone turn for comprehensive, one-stop guidance? Enter the Water Wells and Septic Systems Handbook from McGraw-Hill.
Written in language any property owner can understand yet detailed enough for professionals and technical students this easy-to-use volume delivers the latest techniques and code requirements for designing, building, rehabilitating, and maintaining private water wells and septic systems. Bolstered by a wealth of informative charts, tables, and illustrations, this book delivers:
* Current construction, maintenance, and repair methods
* New International Private Sewage Disposal Code
* Up-to-date standards from the American Water Works Association
Wells and Septic Systems, Alth, Max and Charlet, Rev. by S. Blackwell Duncan, $ 18.95; Tab Books 1992. We have found this text very useful for conventional well and septic systems design and maintenance --DF. Quoting an Amazon description:Here's all the information you need to build a well or septic system yourself - and save a lot of time, money, and frustration. S. Blackwell Duncan has thoroughly revised and updated this second edition of Wells and Septic Systems to conform to current codes and requirements. He also has expanded this national bestseller to include new material on well and septic installation, water storage and distribution, water treatment, ecological considerations, and septic systems for problem building sites.
The NSFC Products List has an excellent list of design manuals/modules available from their website or by telephone 800-624-8301
Submissions welcome. send us a suggested document link or request an exchange of website links
...


	InspectAPedia^®	InspectAPedia
	Free Encyclopedia of Building & Environmental Inspection, Testing, Diagnosis, Repair	Ask a Question or Search InspectAPedia

Free Encyclopedia of Building & Environmental Inspection, Testing, Diagnosis, Repair

Ask a Question or Search InspectAPedia

Bacterial pathogens recovered from vegetables irrigated by wastewater in Morocco

SEPTIC SYSTEMS - INTRODUCTION

Materials and Methods

Samples

Bacteriological Analysis

Results

Discussion

Conclusion

Septic & Sewage Pathogens and Contaminants, References & Research Articles

Frequently Asked Questions (FAQs)

Ask a Question or Search InspectApedia

Technical Reviewers & References

Books & Articles on Building & Environmental Inspection, Testing, Diagnosis, & Repair

Septic & Sewage Pathogens and Contaminants, References & Research Articles

Onsite Wastewater Disposal Books