Suspended panel ceilings: choices, installation, common defects, repairs
Catalog of common interior drop ceiling defects, how they are recognized, effects on building heating and cooling systems
Building heat loss effects and suspended ceilings: R-values of selected suspended ceiling products & designs
Building energy audits and suspended ceilings (drop ceilings)
Questions & answers about suspended panel ceilings or "drop ceilings" in buildings
This article discusses interior suspended ceiling or drop ceiling materials, choices, installation, troubleshooting, and the effects on building heating and cooling costs when a drop ceiling is installed. We describe hazards and problems in suspended ceilings and we include a table of R-values of various suspended ceiling products and designs.
InspectAPedia tolerates no conflicts of interest. We have no relationship with advertisers nor with topics or services discussed at this website.
Suspended Ceilings and Suspended Ceiling Tiles - Properties, Photos
What is a "suspended ceiling" or "drop ceiling"? According to Armstrong Corporation, a manufacturer of suspended ceiling products, [edited and paraphrased]
Suspended ceilings or drop ceilings are a ceiling suspension system that uses
a system of metal members, designed to support a suspended ceiling, typically an acoustical ceiling. A suspended ceiling may also may be designed to accommodate lighting fixtures or air diffusers.
In simple terms, a grid of metal bars, typically shaped in an inverted Tee form is hung from the building original ceiling or ceiling framing. The supporting grid is usually spaced two-feet on center to form square openings, or to form two-foot x four-foot rectangular openings into which are "dropped" prefabricated ceiling panels that are offered in a very wide range of designs and materials. [1] Other suspended ceiling system designs include a "plank look" offered by Armstrong (and perhaps other manufacturers) that is produced in 6" x 48" strips.
Typical suspended ceiling panel thicknesses are 1/2-inch to 2 1/2" except where special products are selected to add greater insulation values. Sound absorption ratings vary by individual product but it is common for an acoustic suspended ceiling panel to claim to absorb up to 50% of noise signals impacting its surface.
The distance between the upper surface of the suspended ceiling grid and the surface of the original ceiling can vary very widely, but in order to install the ceiling panels, manufacturers specify a minimum distance, typically 2" plus the thickness of the panels themselves, or a minimum distance of 2 1/2".[1]
Suspended ceilings or suspended ceiling tiles became popular in North America in the 1960s, and can be made of fiber board or fiberglass, for example. Some have a plastic coating.
Combustible plastics, such as polystyrene, should not be used as ceiling tiles.
Suspended ceiling systems utilize a metal T-bar grid supported by wires from above. You can spot the supporting ceiling grid system in our photo (left) as the bottom edges of the grid are visible between individual suspended ceiling panels.
Advantages of suspended ceiling systems include relatively good acoustic properties, ease of removal to access things above the ceiling, and individual tiles can be replaced readily. On the downside, suspended tiles lower the ceiling at least two to three inches.
Suspended Ceiling / Drop Ceiling Materials, Choices
Acoustic panels, constructed using wood fibers, fiberglass, possibly other materials.
Fiberglass & plastic or vinyl coated embossed panel ceiling panels, typically constructed using high density fiberglass panels in thicknesses from 1/2" to 6" (and of varying R-values)
Plaster panel drop ceilings use suspended panels typically constructed of metal lath. See CEILINGS, PLASTER, LOOSE HAZARDS for a collapse hazard.
Wood fiber or particleboard ceiling panels
Embossed Metal Drop Ceiling Panels
Metal ceilings were typically tin and most often were installed in kitchens, during the late 1800s and early 1900s.
There are also some metal ceiling lookalike products that are actually drop-in panels, typically 2' x 2' or 2' or larger, that are actually a suspended ceiling system. It's easy to spot a metal panel suspended ceiling by looking more closely for its supporting grid.
The metal ceiling in our photo (left) is an antique metal ceiling installed in a New York City restaurant. You can see in the left of the photo that a wooden beam was also wrapped in decorative embossed metal.
This link to a different metal ceiling photo shows a typical example of metal ceiling components that are rusting through from leaks above.
Insulation R-Values of Suspended Ceilings & Effect on Building Heating & Cooling Costs
While it is generally true that installing a lowered drop ceiling or suspended ceiling might reduce heating and cooling costs in buildings, the actual effects, both gains and losses in building heating and cooling costs, are variable and depend on several factors. To understand the net impact of a drop ceiling on building energy costs you will need to evaluate:
The distance between the suspended ceiling and the original ceiling or roof underside above and air movement within that area.
The R-values of the roof, walls above the ceiling, and of the ceiling itself - some drop-ceiling tiles can be quite thick fiberglass pads that offer varying R-values;
How the space above the ceiling is used - for example in offices or other buildings the space above the suspended ceiling is often used as a return air plenum, and the presence of certain HVAC equipment in the ceiling cavity that may increase air movement or that may add or remove heat from that space
Air communication laterally between the ceiling cavity and other building areas - see the blue arrow in our suspended ceiling cavity photograph at above left. The building occupants and management were unaware that the conditioned space above this suite of offices was subverted by a large opening that connected the building ceiling cavity to an exterior hallway and stairwell.
Presence of additional HVAC equipment or air movement devices that may be installed in the suspended ceiling cavity (red arrow in our photo, above left).
The care of installation of the suspending grid and whether or not it's leaky,
The presence of air leaks in and out of the cavity above the drop ceiling from other sources (removed panels, misfit panels, damaged panels)
Our OPINION is that the overall R-factor for a suspended ceiling should not be assumed to be simply that of the panels that comprise the ceiling material. The additional factors above will need to be considered. For example, even a single significant air leak can overwhelm the otherwise stated "R-value" for a suspended ceiling.
Engineering judgment (not test data). Ceilume points out that we should be interested in heat flow resistance in both directions (up out of the conditioned space and down into the conditioned space) to accommodate both heating and cooling requirements [10]
Ceilite™ foil-faced glass wool insulating panels
R 2.6 - 5.9
Varies by season and by air space above the suspended ceiling. Combines polystyrene, reflective foil film, and an air space assumed still air [5]
These are add-on insulating batts and do not include the actual suspended ceiling panel itself.
Quoting: "Sonobatts Insulation are easily installed in
suspended ceiling systems by simply
laying them on top of the ceiling panel and
suspension system. Sonobatts should fit
tightly together to reduce the amount of
heat loss." [11]
[8] Armstrong corporation, website search 10/21/2011, see page bottom footnote [1]. The phrase "inert mineral components" may refer to fiberglass. Here is Armstrong's comment about the insulation value "between floors" of their suspended ceilings:
Most ceilings are installed between floors that are maintained
at the same temperature — making insulation unnecessary.
Basement recreation rooms are at least partly heated by heat
flow through the ceiling from the heated space above. In that
case, attempting to insulate the basement ceiling surface
could actually reduce heat flow.[2]
[9] U.S. Gypsum, web search 10/22/2011, original source: colorado-ceilings.com/usg-ceiling-tile.html
[10] Ceilume,
9270 Graton Road
Graton, CA 95444, Tel: 800-557-0654 , web search 10/21/2011, original source: ceilume.com/ceiling-tile-insulation.cfm
[11] Owens Coring World HQ, One Owens Corning Parkway, Toledo OH, USA, 43659, Tel: 1 - 800 - GET - PINK, Website:
owenscorning.com
Effects on Suspended Ceiling R-Value or R-Factors due to Space Above the Suspended Ceiling Materials
Installing a suspended ceiling can serve to reduce heating or even cooling costs in some buildings by:
reducing the volume of conditioned space by lowering the ceiling
providing an insulated surface below the original ceiling (provided insulating suspended panels are installed)
providing a cavity for the addition of HVAC ducts and registers using the space between the original ceiling and the new suspended ceiling (typical application in offices and other commercial buildings)
But the effectiveness of the suspended ceiling on building energy costs for heating and cooling will be determined by additional factors that we listed earlier in this article. Here we comment on the effects on heating and cooling energy costs of
Changes in effective ceiling height
R-values for the original ceiling and upper walls within the space above the suspended ceiling
[Modeling & data collection are in process, CONTACT us to contribute information.]
Hidden & Visible Hazards in, on, and above Suspended Ceilings
Suspended Ceiling Tiles or Sections - some old contain asbestos?
Often you will find that acoustic ceiling tiles (shown at left - these are not a suspended ceiling product) have been installed on furring strips nailed over an older ceiling that was in poor condition, such as we show in this additional photo where demolition was in process.
However you may come across pre-1986 (date approximate) 2' x 2' or 2' x 4' suspended ceiling panels that might contain asbestos, particularly if acoustic panels were used.
Hidden Hazards in & Above Drop Ceiling or Suspended Ceilings
As we also discuss at WALL FINISHES INTERIOR, water damage is one of the most common problems on interior finishes.
Common water sources that show up as ceiling leaks or leak stains include roof leaks, flashing leaks, ice damming, window and skylight leaks, plumbing leaks, leaks from hot water heating systems, and condensation.
The photo [at left] illustrates drop ceiling panels below areas of leaks.
When looking into any damaged suspended ceiling installation and especially where you see ceiling leak stains in a drop ceiling, you want to inspect carefully to determine the following:
clues indicating that the ceiling structure may be unsafe, in danger of collapse or unhealthy, due to mold or other contaminants. Check for the presence of other, perhaps older materials above the suspended ceiling that may themselves present a building hazard or require additional inspection, testing, or cleanup. For example we may find falling asbestos pipe insulation or collapsing asbestos-containing ceiling tiles above the suspended ceiling structure. We also may find rodents such as mice or bats in these spaces.
The photo at below left illustrates the discovery of asbestos-containing ceiling tiles above a suspended ceiling along with cases of falling tiles and perhaps amateur asbestos material removal.
The photo at below left shows that we found bats infesting the area above the drop ceiling of a public library in upstate New York. At below right we illustrate finding mice in a similar ceiling space.
The photo [at left] illustrates both leak stains into the suspended ceiling and a missing panel, subverting the airflow design of the building HVAC system.
Continuing our examples of hidden hazards above and in drop ceilings:
the source of the water,
whether the problem is still active,
whether there is any concealed damage
the cost to correct the water problem if needed, e) and the cost to repair the damaged building materials.
The cost to replace water-damaged ceiling panels
Mold Contamination or Growth Found on Drop Ceiling Panels & Surfaces
Our moldy suspended ceiling tile photo (left) shows a case in which most of the ceiling tiles had become so wet that they had already fallen to the floor. One moldy ceiling panel remained in this photo - at the bottom of the image. Our lab tests found extensive Aspergillus sp., some Stachybotrys chartarum, and Rhodotorula and other yeast contamination on these ceiling materials. [Some suspended ceiling products are rated by their producers as "mold resistant"]
At above right the suspended ceiling in this bathroom had become mold contaminated due to the combination of high moisture and inadequate ventilation, not due to leaks from above.
At below left we show two sides of moldy drop-in ceiling panels found in a basement over an area of burst pipe flooding that went unattended for weeks. In this event the water and moisture originated below the drop ceiling rather than from above - a hot water spill on the basement floor (photo below left). But on removing moldy ceiling materials we also found evidence of older leaks (below right).
Advice for mold contaminated ceiling tiles
Where there is a large (more than 30 sq.ft.) reservoir of contiguous indoor mold, such as is shown on our moldy ceiling photo below, there are almost certainly health hazards for building occupants.
But as we discuss at Q&A on Building Interiors: Leaks, Stains, Damage, Repairs, small moldy areas may be of no significant health concern and can be cleaned or removed by most homeowners or a handyman who follow simple basic precautions.
We emphasize in all of our notes on indoor mold inspection and testing that a competent inspection for mold contamination begins outside, and should include the entire structure.
Even drop ceiling tiles that look "clean" might be a hidden mold reservoir if they have been wet. We discuss hard-to-see mold reservoirs in fiberglass insulation products at INSULATION MOLD.
At USING LIGHT TO FIND MOLD we provide a detailed example and procedures for using lighting to find mold on surfaces where mold may be present but where it is not immediately obvious.
Frequently-Asked Questions (FAQs) about suspended ceilings or drop ceiling installations
Question: Effects of drop ceilings on building energy usage, heat loss, heat gain, air movement, HVAC operation & costs
Do you have any articles on your Web site dealing with drop ceilings while doing an energy audit?
-
Christopher M. Petersen,
West Philadelphia Home Solutions
Reply: Energy & IAQ Impacts & Some Inspection Points for Suspended Ceilings or "Drop Ceilings"
I'm guessing you're asking about the impact of suspended ceilings on building energy costs, heating gains and losses. The topic of how a drop ceiling affects building energy costs and indoor air quality becomes interestingly complicated depending on at least these factors:
how the space above the ceiling is used - for example in offices or other buildings the space above the suspended ceiling is often used as a return air plenum,
on the distance between the ceiling upper surface and the building roof,
on the R-values of the roof, walls above the ceiling, and of the ceiling itself - some drop-ceiling tiles can be quite thick fiberglass pads that offer varying R-values;
there are also some questions about the care of installation of the suspending grid and whether or not it's leaky,
removed or damaged drop ceiling panels - I have indeed investigated and even measured airflow changes that happen to confound heating and cooling air flow in offices when occupants remove or partially remove a suspended section to try to tune up their local airflow. Our photo (above left) illustrates the discovery of an unanticipated air pathway between what was thought to be isolated building sections.
leaks into the space above the drop ceiling risk hidden damage, mold contamination, etc.
debris in the space above the drop or suspended ceiling may be picked up by and distributed by the HVAC system
If you can be a little more specific with questions I'll be glad to do some research and prepare material for you - it'll help us both. Be sure to let me know the total floor to original ceiling height as well as the floor to drop ceiling height- those will be important model parameters.
Discussion: CP
I'm asking about a drop ceiling in a more general sense, and in a couple things you hit on in your email. I'm a BPI certified home energy auditor and tomorrow I am doing an audit for a family with a bedroom that has a drop ceiling (it formerly was an office).
I'm specifically wondering about some of the dynamics I may want to be on the lookout for during the blower door test. This particular ceiling has insulated tiles and 3-4 inches of well-installed fiberglass batt insulation above the tiles. I'm expecting to encounter some leakage through the grids, however, which I know will compromise the performance of the insulation. - C.P.
Reply: DF
With some building data we can use existing tools to build a table of [theoretical] effects on building energy usage and IAQ when a drop ceiling (suspended ceiling tiles) is installed.
Questions & Answers regarding this article
Questions & answers about suspended ceilings or "drop ceilings" in buildings
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[1] Armstrong World Industries
2500 Columbia Ave. (17603)
P.O. Box 3001
Lancaster, PA 17604
(717)397-0611, Terms & Definitions, web search 10/21/2011, original source: armstrong.com/resclgam/na/ceilings/en/us/article17707.html
[2] Armstrong World Industries, Armstrong Ceilings Retailer Guide, PDF brochure, web search 10/21/2011, original source armstrong.com/resclgam/na/ceilings/en/us/request-brochures.html
Christopher M. Petersen,
West Philadelphia Home Solutions, Email: westphilahome@yahoo.com
Plastering Skills, F. Van Den Branden, Thomas L. Hartsell, Amer Technical Pub (July 1, 1985), ISBN-10: 0826906575, ISBN-13: 978-0826906571 [purchase at Amazon.com]
Books & Articles on Building & Environmental Inspection, Testing, Diagnosis, & Repair
Our recommended books about building & mechanical systems design, inspection, problem diagnosis, and repair, and about indoor environment and IAQ testing, diagnosis, and cleanup are at the InspectAPedia Bookstore. Also see our Book Reviews - InspectAPedia.
The Home Reference Book - the Encyclopedia of Homes, Carson Dunlop & Associates, Toronto, Ontario, 2010, $69.00 U.S., is available from Carson Dunlop. The Home Reference Book is a bound volume of more than 450 illustrated pages that assist home inspectors and home owners in the inspection and detection of problems on buildings. The text is intended as a reference guide to help building owners operate and maintain their home effectively. InspectAPedia.com ® author/editor Daniel Friedman is a contributing author. Field inspection worksheets are included at the back of the volume.
American Plywood Association, APA, "Portland Manufacturing Company, No. 1, a series of monographs on the history of plywood manufacturing",Plywood Pioneers Association, 31 March, 1967, www.apawood.org
Animal Allergens: Dog, Cat, and Other Animal Dander - Cleanup & Prevention Information for Asthmatics and regarding Indoor Air Quality.
Asbestos: How to find and recognize asbestos in Buildings - visual inspection methods, list of common asbestos-containing materials
ASHRAE resource on dew point and wall condensation - see the ASHRAE Fundamentals Handbook, available in many libraries. The following three ASHRAE Handbooks are also available at the InspectAPedia bookstore in the third page of our Insulate-Ventilate section:
2005 ASHRAE Handbook : Fundamentals : Inch-Pound Edition (2005 ASHRAE HANDBOOK : Fundamentals : I-P Edition) (Hardcover), Thomas H. Kuehn (Contributor), R. J. Couvillion (Contributor), John W. Coleman (Contributor), Narasipur Suryanarayana (Contributor), Zahid Ayub (Contributor), Robert Parsons (Author), ISBN-10: 1931862702 or ISBN-13: 978-1931862707
2004 ASHRAE Handbook : Heating, Ventilating, and Air-Conditioning: Systems and Equipment : Inch-Pound Edition (2004 ASHRAE Handbook : HVAC Systems and Equipment : I-P Edition) (Hardcover)
by American Society of Heating, ISBN-10: 1931862478 or ISBN-13: 978-1931862479
"2004 ASHRAE Handbook - HVAC Systems and Equipment The 2004 ASHRAE HandbookHVAC Systems and Equipment discusses various common systems and the equipment (components or assemblies) that comprise them, and describes features and differences. This information helps system designers and operators in selecting and using equipment. Major sections include Air-Conditioning and Heating Systems (chapters on system analysis and selection, air distribution, in-room terminal systems, centralized and decentralized systems, heat pumps, panel heating and cooling, cogeneration and engine-driven systems, heat recovery, steam and hydronic systems, district systems, small forced-air systems, infrared radiant heating, and water heating); Air-Handling Equipment (chapters on duct construction, air distribution, fans, coils, evaporative air-coolers, humidifiers, mechanical and desiccant dehumidification, air cleaners, industrial gas cleaning and air pollution control); Heating Equipment (chapters on automatic fuel-burning equipment, boilers, furnaces, in-space heaters, chimneys and flue vent systems, unit heaters, makeup air units, radiators, and solar equipment); General Components (chapters on compressors, condensers, cooling towers, liquid coolers, liquid-chilling systems, centrifugal pumps, motors and drives, pipes and fittings, valves, heat exchangers, and energy recovery equipment); and Unitary Equipment (chapters on air conditioners and heat pumps, room air conditioners and packaged terminal equipment, and a new chapter on mechanical dehumidifiers and heat pipes)."
1996 Ashrae Handbook Heating, Ventilating, and Air-Conditioning Systems and Equipment: Inch-Pound Edition (Hardcover), ISBN-10: 1883413346 or ISBN-13: 978-1883413347 ,
"The 1996 HVAC Systems and Equipment Handbook is the result of ASHRAE's continuing effort to update, expand and reorganize the Handbook Series. Over a third of the book has been revised and augmented with new chapters on hydronic heating and cooling systems design; fans; unit ventilator; unit heaters; and makeup air units. Extensive changes have been added to chapters on panel heating and cooling; cogeneration systems and engine and turbine drives; applied heat pump and heat recovery systems; humidifiers; desiccant dehumidification and pressure drying equipment, air-heating coils; chimney, gas vent, fireplace systems; cooling towers; centrifugal pumps; and air-to-air energy recovery. Separate I-P and SI editions."
Principles of Heating, Ventilating, And Air Conditioning: A textbook with Design Data Based on 2005 AShrae Handbook - Fundamentals (Hardcover), Harry J., Jr. Sauer (Author), Ronald H. Howell, ISBN-10: 1931862923 or ISBN-13: 978-1931862929
Brick Nogging, Historical Investigation and Contemporary Repair, Construction Specifier, April 2006. Historical use of brick in timber-framed buildings, drawing on the investigations of the Kent Tavern in Calais, VT.
"Brick nogging is a European method of construction which was brought to the new world in the early-nineteenth century. It was a common construction method that employed masonry as infill between the vertical uprights of wood framing." -- quoting the web article review.
Building Research Council, BRC, nee Small Homes Council, SHC, School of Architecture, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, brc.arch.uiuc.edu. "The Small Homes Council (our original name) was organized in 1944 during the war at the request of the President of the University of Illinois to consider the role of the university in meeting the demand for housing in the United States. Soldiers would be coming home after the war and would be needing good low-cost housing. ... In 1993, the Council became part of the School of Architecture, and since then has been known as the School of Architecture-Building Research Council. ... The Council's researchers answered many critical questions that would affect the quality of the nation's housing stock.
How could homes be designed and built more efficiently?
What kinds of construction and production techniques worked well and which did not?
How did people use different kinds of spaces in their homes?
What roles did community planning, zoning, and interior design play in how neighborhoods work
"An Example of Colonial Paneling", Norman Morrison Isham, The Metropolitan Museum of Art Bulletin, Vol. 6, No. 5 (May, 1911), pp. 112-116, available by JSTOR.
Fiberglass: Indoor Air Quality Investigations: Health Concerns About Airborne Fiberglass: Fiberglass in Indoor Air from HVAC ducts, and Building Insulation
Gypsum Construction Guide, National Gypsum Corporation
Gypsum
Construction Handbook [purchase at Amazon.com] H17, Technical
Folder SA920 and PM2, PM3 and PM4, United States Gypsum Company, 125 South Franklin ST., PO Box 806278, Chicago, IL 60680-4124,
Humidity: What indoor humidity should we maintain in order to avoid a mold problem?
Ice Dam Leaks in building attics and roof cavities, how to inspect for evidence of leaks, identify causes, and correct bad attic ventilation, improper roof venting, and these causes of attic mold or roof structure damage
Insulation Types, table of common building insulation properties from U.S. DOE. Readers should see INSULATION R-Values & Properties our own table of insulation properties that includes links to articles describing each insulation material in more detail.
Lath & Plaster Systems, 092300/NGC, National Gypsum Lath and Plaster Systems, National Gypsum Corporation, 800-628-4662 describing National Gypsum's Kal-Kore brand plaster base
The National Institute of Standards and Technology, NIST (nee National Bureau of Standards NBS) is a US government agency - see www.nist.gov
"A Parametric Study of Wall Moisture Contents Using a Revised Variable Indoor Relative Humidity Version of the "Moist" Transient Heat and Moisture Transfer Model [copy on file as/interiors/MOIST_Model_NIST_b95074.pdf ] - ", George Tsongas, Doug Burch, Carolyn Roos, Malcom Cunningham; this paper describes software and the prediction of wall moisture contents. - PDF Document from NIS
Pergo AB, division of Perstorp AB, is a Swedish manufacturer or modern laminate flooring products. Information about the U.S. company can be found at http://www.pergo.com where we obtained historical data used in our discussion of the age of flooring materials in buildings.
Piquet Wall Construction: See this photo of
piquet wall construction - involving timber-framed wall construction with long top girts, diagonal timber bracing, and small diameter logs
placed vertically along with concrete chinking to fill in the wall plane.
Plank House Construction: weblog from plankhouse.wordpress.com/2009/01/25/plank-house-construction/ and where plank houses were built by native Americans, see
Large 1:6 Scale Plank House Construction / P8094228,
Photographer: Mike Meuser
06/12/2007 documented at yurokplankhouse.com where scale model Museum quality Yurok Plank Houses are being sold to raise money for the Blue Creek - Ah Pah Traditional Yurok Village project.
Plastering, PM 5, Product & Systems Technology, US Gypsum, May 1998, web search 10.5.2010, original source: http://www.usg.com/rc/technical-articles/plaster/
plastering-technical-guide-veneer-plaster-joint-reinforcement-systems-en-PM5.pdf
United States Gypsum Company, 125 South Franklin ST., PO Box 806278, Chicago, IL 60680-4124,
Paraphrasing from this document: USG uses the term shadowing in this document in describing the visual effect over gypsum board joints caused by the lower moisture absorption rate (take-up) and lower capacity than gypsum base face paper. Shadowing at joints occurs where veneer plaster is applied over tape joints, requiring a second coat to completely hide the tape, providing a visually uniform surface. USG Advises: "This [second] cover coat must be allowed to harden and dry before plaster application is started.
Plastering Skills, F. Van Den Branden, Thomas L. Hartsell, Amer Technical Pub (July 1, 1985), ISBN-10: 0826906575, ISBN-13: 978-0826906571 [purchase at Amazon.com]
Rubblestone Wall Filler: See this Lartigue House using exterior-exposed rubblestone filler between vertical timbers of a post and beam-framed Canadian building.
How to Clean Moldy Wood Framing & Sheathing How to clean/seal mold from/on exposed lumber or plywood subfloor or roof sheathing indoors - some suggestions based on our field and laboratory research
Lighting, proper use of: proper aiming of a good flashlight can disclose hard to see but toxic light or white mold colonies on walls.
Manufactured & Modular Homes: Modular Building Systems Association, MBSA, modularhousing.com, is a trade association promoting and providing links to contact modular builders in North America. Also see the Manufactured Home Owners Association, MHOAA, at www.mhoaa.us. The Manufactured Home Owners Association of America is a National Organization dedicated to the protection of the rights of all people living in Manufactured Housing in the United States.
Mold-Resistant Building Practices, advice from an expert on how to prevent mold after a building flood and how to prevent mold growth in buildings by selection of building materials and by anti-mold construction details.
"Weather-Resistive Barriers [copy on file as /interiors/Weather_Resistant_Barriers_DOE.pdf ] - ", how to select and install housewrap and other types of weather resistive barriers, U.S. DOE
Weaver: Beaver Board and Upson Board:
Beaver Board and Upson Board: History and Conservation of Early Wallboard, Shelby Weaver,
APT Bulletin, Vol. 28, No. 2/3 (1997), pp. 71-78, Association for Preservation Technology International (APT), available online at JSTOR.
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