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Cut nail differences before and after late 1830s - adapted from Nelson, NPS - at InspectApedia.comKey to Age of Antique Metal Nails
Context, Head, Shank, Details Help ID Age a Nail

Easy questions help form a guess at the plausible age of various types of antique & modern Nails, including wood treenails, hand-wrought nails, cut nails, wire nails.

This article series describes antique and modern cut nails focusing on tree nails, wrought nails, and cut nails used in wood frame construction or interior finishing or carpentry work. It includes useful dates for the manufacture of different nail types.

Page top photo: sprites. These are small headless hand-wrought nails, discussed in more detail at NAILS & HARDWARE, AGE FAQs.

InspectAPedia tolerates no conflicts of interest. We have no relationship with advertisers, products, or services discussed at this website.

Guess the Age of Nails & Building Hardware

Hand wrought iron spike pre-1830 © Daniel FriedmanA physical examination of old or antique nails and fasteners and other building hardware combined with questions about the country, city, and building or other location where the nails were found can offer clues to the probable age and original purpose of the old nail or spike.

[Click to enlarge any image]

The earliest known nails date from at least 300 B.C.

The earliest-date of different styles of nails, hand-wrought nails, cut nails, machine cut nails, and machine made round or wire nails depends on the country where the nails were manufactured and for large countries like Australia, the U.S. or Canada, also on the spread of nail making equipment across the country.

In our home page for this topic we note:

Nelson (NPS) and other nail chronologists point out, however that a wealth other details can describe the date of production and use of each of those three general nail types. In turn, nail details can establish the time of original construction of a building and the time of modifications to the structure.

Watch out: experts warn that examination of old nails, used with discretion, has proved useful and reliable as a technique for estimating the age of a building (Nelson 1988 US NPS).

Antique Nail & Spike Aging Questions and Inspection Points

1: Nail / Spike Location

Where was the nail, spike, tack found: Country, city, building, lake, river or stream

For example the the first mass produced nails appeared in Europe in the 1400s; The First Nail Making Machines appeared in Europe around 1590 as Slitting Mills.

Keep in mind that nails were often imported from one area to another. For example in North America nails were imported to the Colonies from Europe. So you may find a machine made nail in an area where there was no nail making machinery at all.

1775-1783 American Revolution: American colonists shifted to local production of nails and nail import from England was reduced.

2. Age of nail's surrounding materials - contextual information

According lath nails, machine made help date this structure (C) InspectApedia.com PrestonIf the nail was found in a building, what is the age of the building and when were renovations or additions made to the building?

Also what type of building was it: home, barn, commercial structure, deck, wharf, ship, boat, or even an antique aircraft?

What is the history of the area where the nail or spike was found? See our examples below

at ANCIENT ROMAN NAILS

at INVERNESS CANAL IRON TOOLS & SPIKES

and at ESOPUS MEADOWS LIGHTHOUSE ISLAND SPIKE - using historical context of surroundings to guess the purpose and age of iron nails artifacts.

Take a look at this little antique cut-nail - it's twisted so you may be fooled but this is a machine made but small cut nail.

Look at where it's found: this is a strip of wood lath.

So we can be pretty sure that this is a lath nail. The increase in width below the cut nail head followed again by decrease tells us something about the manner in which this cut nail was sliced from the iron blank and thus more about its age, as we'll explain below.

Now if this lath scrap is, for example, from an old house I restored at 28 West St. in Wappingers Falls NY (known as "the bleachery") we know when that house was built and thus we can make a pretty good guess that original wood lath in the home dates from around the U.S. Civil War, perhaps 1865 to about 1880.

Incidentally if you look closely you'll see the saw cut kerf marks faintly visible on this wood lath.

More help: SAW & AXE CUTS, TOOL MARKS, AGE

After making what use you can of surrounding mud, dirt, debris to understand the nail's context and history, get the crud off to get a better look at the nail.

Also see NAIL & HARDWARE CLEAN-UP

Also see RAILROAD SPIKE AGE - CONTEXTUAL CLUES

3. Nail Application or Use

Antique headless nail, probably a sprig nail (C) InspectApedia.com AngieEarliest hand-wrought spikes and nails appeared principally in wood frame construction; later nails were also used for decorative purposes, nailed in patterns, for example.

Photo: hand-wrought sprites. Notice the irregular width? Note the absence of heads?

Example: Clinched nails:

Was the nail clinched - hammered through with its end bent-over?

If so, is the nail hand wrought or machine made?

Cut nails made in North America before the 1830s would not have been used for clinched nailing (ends would break off)

On this page we continue with more keys to determine the age of old nails and fasteners.

If you want to identify the probably nail type or its intended use

see NAIL ID & AGE: HAND FORGED NAILS - hand wrought nails made by hammering

see NAIL ID & AGE: CUT NAILS - machine cut nails including early hand-operated nail cutting machinery, some with hand-forged heads.

More help: AGE of a BUILDING, HOW to DETERMINE

More help: WINDOW HARDWARE AGE

4. Color, Condition of & Marks on Wood or Other Materials Surrounding the Nail

A look at saw cuts and tool marks on wood, for example can date when the lumber was manufactured.

More help: see these articles on tool and saw marks and other lumber age details:

Take a look at any stains around the nail where it penetrates wood, plaster, fabric, or other materials.

Older hand-wrought nails were often less prone to heavy exfoliating rust and will leave less-dark and less-extensive rust stains in their surrounding material.

5. Physical properties of the nail or spike itself can give nail age & age of building or furniture or tools

Take a look at the nail size (length, diameter), shank, point, head and tip

5.1. Nail size

Earlier nails were often larger spikes used to replace treenails in post and beam or other wood construction; later smaller hand made nails appear even for use in securing wood lath for plaster walls.

Example: ask when plaster was first used in the area where your hand wrought or cut wood-lath nails were used.

Early small nails:

1806 - Blanchard Tack Making Machine - 1806

5.2 Nail head

Hand wrought iron spike pre-1830 © Daniel FriedmanIs the head round and flat (modern), round and hammered (antique to modern), or obviously irregular and hand-wrought?

Is the nail head formed by hand on a machine-cut shank?

Photo: hand-wrought nail head

In North America:

Cut nail, shingle style, Tremont Nail Co. © Daniel Friedman ... Cut nail head, wrought style, Tremont Nail Co © Daniel Friedman

Photos above: machine made nail heads.

More help: See NAIL BURRS discussed at

More help: NAIL MAKING MACHINES 1790

More help: NAILS, HAND WROUGHT

5.2 Nail shank as an indicator of nail age & splits or direction of iron fibres

Closeup of hand wrought iron spike (C) InspectApedia.com LaCorteIs the shank obviously hand wrought with hammer marks?

Is the nail shank obviously cut with straight or straight-tapered sides?

If the nail (or spike) was cut, are the cut marks on diagonally opposite sides of the nail? The type of cutting can set the nail age.

Illustration: splits in this antique nail probably indicate direction of its iron fibres - parallel to the shank dimension - discussed below.

See more

at NAIL SPLITS & CRACKS vs AGE

Is the shank square - more-common in nails hand-made before 1800

Is the nail shank roughly rectangular but not square - common in nails from 1800 to present in wrought and cut nails

Is the nail shank round? - typical of modern wire nails drawn from wire and machine made; usually wire nails also show clinch marks under the nail head where the wire was held during machine forming of the nail head.

Ancient Roman Nails

Ancient nail, possibly Roman, found in Kent, UK, between Northfleet ans Southfleet where Roman remains have been found previously - David Platt (C) InspectApedia.comOn 2022-01-11 by Inspectapedia Com Moderator (mod) - Photos & Information about Ancient Roman Nails

@David Platt,

Some nice details about ancient Roman nails can be read in

Dungworth, David, MYSTIFYING ROMAN NAILS: CLAVUS ANNALIS, DEFIXIONES AND MINKISI [PDF] in TRAJ, Theoretical Roman Archaeology Journal, Contact: https://traj.openlibhums.org/contact/

Excerpt:

Introduction

Iron nails are found on almost every Roman period site in Britain but their ubiquity and apparently straightforward nature has meant that they are at times taken for granted and even ignored .

On some occasions publications may do little more than note that nails were recovered durin g excavation.

There is of course the famous hoard of iron nails from the fortress at Inchtuthill where nearly a million nails (10 tonnes) were found in a single pit . (Pitts and St. Joseph 1985).

The Roman nail cache found at Inchtuthil, Perthshire (UK) are also discussed in this nice Australian article:

and see

On 2022-01-09 by David Platt

Thanks, Charles. In which direction did the metal grain go in Roman nail? I can see it as an advantage for a nail!
Being new to this I wish I could identify it conclusively - any tips? Thank you.

On 2022-01-08 by Inspectapedia Com Moderator (mod)

@David Platt,

Adding from the page above,

For nails whose iron grain runs longitudinally or in the direction of the shank, that can be taken as consistent with 17th through early 19th centuries, Hand-Wrought Nails

On 2022-01-08 by David Platt

@Inspectapedia Com Moderator, Thank you for your prompt reply and for your advice. I shall continue my search.

On 2022-01-07 by Inspectapedia Com Moderator (mod)

@David Platt,

Our best and most complete advice are in the steps given above on this page.

Ancient Roman nails will show signs of hand forging, are generally square with a tapered shank and a relatively flat head. But really visual inspection of the nail alone is not likely to be sufficient to date it to Roman times.

The context of where the nail was found and surrounding materials are helpful. You'll read in some of the research papers we'll cite on ancient Roman nails that examinations have been done of the structure of the iron using SEM, scanning electron microscopy.

In essence, as you’ll read above, when estimating the age, properties, use, and history of a metal fastener like a nail, spike, or screw, we look at

1. the item itself for clues about how it was made, of what materials, and in some cases iron fibre direction that can bracket age of manufacture

2. contextual clues: what we know from surrounding materials, location, history of the area, etc.

You have already determined some of this information which is great.

You may also find interesting this page:

HISTORY AND PHOTOS OF NAILS

On 2022-01-07 1 by David Platt

I wonder if you might help me identify this nail. It was found in Kent, UK, between Northfleet and Southfleet where Roman remains have been found previously.

There is no sign of burrs so does not appear to be ‘cut’ form sheet, it is, rather, wrought (hammer marks seem to be present on shaft).

The head is irregular and tapers into the shaft. No presence of ‘low pyramid’ head and the grain seems to run along the entire nail length, no stamping present on the nail.

[See Mr. Platt's nail photo above - Ed.]

 

Key to Nail Shank, Head, Tip Properties vs Nail Age

Informed by Phillips' "Revised Chronology of Cut Nails in New England: Wrought and Cut Nail Characteristics", (1993) cited in detail

at NAILS & HARDWARE, AGE RESEARCH

Nelson's chart of early machine-made nail characteristics cited & discussed at InspectApedia.com Details of an early machine cut nail 1815 1839 (C) InspectApedia.com reader J

[Click to enlarge any image]

Sketch excepted from Nelson cited in references. Nail photo courtesy of InspectApedia. reader "A".

Really? The observation that the taper runs down 1/3 or more of the shank length argues that the above photo is actually of a "modern" machine cut nail, post 1830. Also at our yellow line pointing out side burrs you'll see what may be a longitudinal split in the nail; if so the iron fibres run lengthwise not across the nail, also arguing for a "modern" cut nail (1835 - 1890) - Ed.

Machine made cut nail from the Tremont nail company, head profile of a boat nail © Daniel Friedman ... Machine made cut nail from the Tremont nail company, head profile of a boat nail © Daniel Friedman

Photo above: machine made reproduction of an antique cut nail. Note the variation in shank diameter is irregular - the nail tapers below the head, then gets wider, then more-narrow to the nail tip.

Cut nail shanks that widen and then become more narrow again towards the point are dated by various sources as 1790 - 1820,

while cut nail shanks that taper at a uniform rate from under the head to the nail tip ar generally dated as 1830 or later (in North America) or by some sources, 1810 or later. (Visser, U. Vt.)

More help: NAIL ID & AGE: HAND FORGED NAILS - using reproductions of antique cut nails by the Tremont Nail Co.

5.3 Nail point:

Hand wrought iron spike pre-1830 © Daniel Friedman

The point or sharp tip on early cut nails and hand-wrought nails was often made by filing. Is the point on your nail symmetrical or irregular suggesting hand-sharpening?
Photo: flat-hammered tip of a hand-wrought iron spike.

More help: NAILS, AGE & HISTORY - topic home where we give a chronology of types of nails from 300B.C. to the present. Be sure you also review that article when looking at your own found nail or spike.

Wire nails show gripper marks that hold the nail as its head and tip are formed - adapted from Nelson, NPS cited at InspectApedia.com

Also see

 




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Reader Comments, Questions & Answers About The Article Above

Below you will find questions and answers previously posted on this page at its page bottom reader comment box.

Reader Q&A - also see RECOMMENDED ARTICLES & FAQs

On 2023-09-11 by InspectApedia Publisher (mod) - cleaning up a possibly-bronze metal artifact from Cancale, France

@LJW,

The color of the "growth" on the head of that spike suggests that it may be made of bronze. If so it's probably quite old, and there won't be a fibre direction. If it's iron, as may be evident when it has been cleaned, then that may offer a clue.

Start with a week long soak in household vinegar.

Our best and most complete advice are in the steps given on this page.

In essence, as you’ll read above, when estimating the age, properties, use, and history of a metal fastener like a nail, spike, or screw, we look at

1. the item itself for clues about how it was made, of what materials, and in some cases iron fibre direction that can bracket age of manufacture

2. contextual clues: what we know from surrounding materials, location, history of the area, etc.

It would be worthwhile to review our steps above to help answer your question. As far as cleaning it, for more detail, please see

NAIL & HARDWARE CLEAN-UP (live link in our Recommended Articles list on this page)

On 2023-09-11 by LJW

Hi!

I found this today on the beach in Cancale, France.
To me it looks like a nail or so, but have no experience at all with this.

The body looks a little square and the head round, but it is covered with rock/minerals.

Do you have any idea what it could be or suggestion how to clean it properly without breaking it?

Much appreciated!

On 2023-08-10 by InspectApedia DF (mod)

@Keiran,

Our best and most complete advice are in the steps given at the top of this page. Please start there and let me know what you think of the results.
You may also want to take a look at

CHRONOLOGICAL HISTORY OF NAILS
https://inspectapedia.com/interiors/Nails_Hardware_Age.php

On 2023-08-09 y Keiran - iron fastener / nail / spike from Beach in Wales

We found this on a beach in Wales. It was encrusted and when we took ot out of the casing, it looks like a metal spike or nail? It looks handmade, not machined

When we found it, it looked like it had markings on it



On 2023-07-28 by InspectApedia Publisher (mod)

@Phalen,

That's really interesting chunk of metal but it's such an odd shape that I'm not sure what it is.

Putting some context around finds like this can be very helpful in guessing if they're possible use and age. We give examples of that above.

It looks almost like a wedge or shim.

On 2023-07-28 by Phalen

Found this on beach. Any ideas?

Found this on a beach in Georgia. It definitely has nail head. The rest of it is blob of metal. I was in the Navy for a while so it was pretty cool to find it. I just wish I knew its purpose.

Iron wedge found on beach - antique? (C) Inspectapedia.com Phalen

On 2023-07-10 by InspectApedia DF (mod)

@Anonymous,

Please take a look at the old nail and spike determination steps given above on this page.

When estimating the age, properties, use, and history of a metal fastener like a nail, spike, or screw, we look at

1. the item itself for clues about how it was made, of what materials, and in some cases iron fibre direction that can bracket age of manufacture

2. contextual clues: what we know from surrounding materials, location, history of the area, etc.

It's hard to tell from your photo if the shank is round or square or rectangular, or what the shape of the nail head is. Please do take a look at the information above on this page to help you with your questions.

On 2023-07-10 y Anonymous

I'm curious as to which these 5.5" inch spikes are, hand forged or machined, and approx. how old.

antique 5-inch spike (C) InspectApedia.com

On 2023-06-07 by InspectApedia Publisher (mod) - possible early iron necklace or bracelet, early Canadian West Coast peoples

@Lora,

I wondered if that was some type of sale edge or luff weight but honestly I don't know. It looks almost like a piece of homemade jewelry using iron.

From the scale offered by that baby pacifier I'd guess an early iron ornamented necklace.

Notice that there are a few details worked into the iron that show in your close-up photos.

Keep in mind that if we go back to pre-European times iron was often found at the ground surface and treated as a precious metal.

I'd suggest having this piece checked out by some museums who are familiar with the history of Canadian west coast peoples.

A starting place is the Canadian Museum of History at historymuseum.ca/cmc/exhibitions/archeo/hnpc/npvol28e.html

and by excerpt from that page

o acquire some appreciation of the exceptional cultural and linguistic diversity of the people of the British Columbia coast it is recommended that the reader consult Volume 7, Northwest Coast, Handbook of the North American Indians. Particularly useful introductory chapters are those by Wayne Suttles 1990 1990a .


On 2023-06-05 by Lora

Found this on the Westcoast of Canada - Pacific Ocean. Any ideas what it is? I tried to take a few photos up close to help with a soother for scale.

Antique bracelet or necklace made of iron - Lora, West Coast of Canada, Pacific Ocean (C) InspectApedia.com Lora


Antique bracelet or necklace made of iron - Lora, West Coast of Canada, Pacific Ocean (C) InspectApedia.com Lora


Antique bracelet or necklace made of iron - Lora, West Coast of Canada, Pacific Ocean (C) InspectApedia.com Lora


Antique bracelet or necklace made of iron - Lora, West Coast of Canada, Pacific Ocean (C) InspectApedia.com Lora

On 2023-05-26 by InspectApedia DF (mod)

@Erik Davis,

I agree that that looks like an antique tack. Keep in mind that tacks were among the very first fasteners to be made by machine.

But the very sharp point and angular cut lead me to think this is a more-modern tack than the age of the frame and artwork.

When estimating the age, properties, use, and history of a metal fastener like a nail, spike, or screw, we look

1. at the item itself for clues about how it was made, of what materials, and in some cases iron fibre direction that can bracket age of manufacture

2. at contextual clues: what we know from surrounding materials, location, history of the area, etc. In your case, one note the point out is about looking at the surrounding frame.

Also take a look at our

CHRONOLOGY HISTORY OF NAILS
https://inspectapedia.com/interiors/Nails_Hardware_Age.php

And see the related articles in the Recommended Articles list just above on this page.

On 2023-05-26 by Erik Davis

I found an early canvas oil painting of Alexander Hamilton and pulled one of the nails from the stretcher board, I need help identifying the age of this nail to help maybe put a time line on the painting.

Is it early to mid 19th century or earlier. Thanks!

On 2023-05-21 by InspectApedia DF (mod)

@Matt kile,

From what we can see, it does seem to be a hook or fastener of some sort. The shadow shows the angle at which the 'head' is attached to the hook, and we appreciate the penny for size.

As you can read above on this page, the contextual clues around a found nail or spike can often give good information as to the item's identity and use.

That perfectly-round shank suggests that this is a more-modern hook/nail manufactured from drawn wire, not hand forged.

On 2023-05-21 by Matt kile

Found this while out metal detecting near an old Civil war site. Wondering if it is a nail or some sort of hook.

On 2023-04-24 by InspectApedia Editor - mineral build-up on old rusty spikes from Southern California beach

@Sashabot,

Thanks, those are interesting photos of old spikes or nails.

What is the geology of the area where they were found? Is that simply a mineral build-up around the nails? It sure looks like a concrete mixture.

I can't see enough of the metal objects to have an opinion of what was their intended or original use, but in some of the photos it looks as if we're seeing flat-rectangular metal shanks that may be a clue to age and use.

On 2023-04-24 by Sashabot

Is there any significance to the fact that so much rock has built up around this iron tool?

mineral buildup on nails found on Southern California beach (C) InspectApedia.com Sashabot

I found these on a beach in Southern California. They were completely covered with rock I had to chip a way to find oh what was under it

mineral buildup on nails found on Southern California beach (C) InspectApedia.com Sashabot

On 2023-05-08 by InspectApedia Editor

@SilentlessK,

Thanks for the nice comment and for not hanging out "silently". I was a nerd myself for a long time.

"Nerdy" where I [DF] come from can be a compliment: attentive to thoughtful research and refusing to spout bluster and baloney for clicks.

But here we're interested in real-world problem-solving for building structures, mechanical systems, and the building indoor environment.
And we work hard to give practical, researched, useful answers.

It ain't just bent nails & unicorns. But bent nails and tool marks on wood can tell us a lot about how buildings were and are put together, and what works, and what lasts, and what doesn't.

When I learned, working on repairing old houses, that I could look at a hammer mark and realize that I could stand exactly where stood the framer, 175 years ago, and swing my hammer in the same arc that she or he did, that thought gave me not just a sense of connection to the people who built or fixed homes before us, it was also a source of helpful humility.

So to that end, we'd sure be grateful for any hands-on, thoughtful or even nerdy information that you can add or for any questions or criticism or content suggestions for InspectApedia.com - working together can help us all, nerds and carpenters, forensic engineers and house painters. - DF

On 2023-05-08 by SilentlessK

@InspectApedia Editor ,
I'm a handyman in the DC area. Still lots of 100yo + properties around, like my grandparent's house built 1870s, tucked away in the suburbs. Had stumbled into this site before, but really just started digging deep into this is compendium of aggregated wisdom.

Super nerdy.
Thanks
k

On 2023-05-08 by InspectApedia Editor

@SilentlessK,

Agreed that that's a real possibility.

Thanks for your input.

On 2023-05-08 by SilentlessK

@Kim,
I'll wager the nail was once straight in a piece of wood and was curled when pried out with a cat's paw.

On 2023-04-22 by InspectApedia Editor - framing nail bent into a hook by intention or not

@Kim,

Looks like a framing nail bent into a hook, either for use as a hanger or simply bent during withdrawal.

On 2023-04-22 by Kim

Found this in the yard...I live in an area with older homes...1800s. Any idea what the purpose of the nail shape would have been?

framing nail hook (C) InspectApedia.com Kim

...

Curved nail (C) InspectApedia.com Kim

On 2023-03-08 by InspectApedia Editor - large square-shank spike in Missouri

@Angela,

Thank you for the photo of what looks like a large square-shank spike - it's quite corroded and doesn't offer much more information than its size and shank shape, so you'll want to consider the surrounding context in which it was found.

On 2023-03-08 by Angela

I found this in my backyard in Galena Missouri. I cannot find anything similar

Square shank spike in Missouri (C) InspectApedia.com Angela

On 2023-01-23 by InspectApedia Editor - Vancouver Island spike with parallel fibers means it's machine-made

@LoriP,

The fibers seem to run parallel to shank which would mean a machine-made cut nail or spike.

Our best and most complete advice are in the steps given at the top of this page.

In essence, as you’ll read above, when estimating the age, use, and history of a a nail or spike, we look

1. at the item itself for clues about how it was made, of what materials, and in some cases iron fibre direction that can bracket age of manufacture (discussed more above in this article)

2. at contextual clues: what we know from surrounding materials, location, history of the area, etc.

On 2023-01-23 by LoriP

I found this on the beach on Vancouver Island, Canada, with a non-fully formed rock around it. It is roughly 3.5" long and less than .5" in width. There is no head (broke off?), and forms a flat tip/point which is the same width as the spike itself. Any ideas?

Vancouver Island spike with parallel fibers (C) InspectApedia.com LoriP

On 2023-01-16 by PAD

old twisted nail (C) InspectApedia.com Pad ... old twisted nail (C) InspectApedia.com Pad

On 2023-01-16 by PAD from Private Email

Checking to see if this email is still open? I found a nail and would like to send pictures.

On 2022-12-31 by InspectApedia Publisher - railroad spike collection

@Katherine,

Nice railroad spike collection

I'm looking for good railroad spike head identification markings and codes sources and will add those references

at RAILROAD SPIKES

where we have moved all your photos and our full discussion.

On 2022-12-31 by Katherine

Hi, can you help me id/date these railroad spikes? They were found beside the original 1854 track going through Cary, NC (Wake County), but still used today as well. I found 3 so I will do 3 separate postings.

RR spikes found near original 1854 track in North Carolina (C) InspectApedia.com Katherine

On 2022-12-25 by InspectApedia (Editor) - hand-forged spike or nail

@Jenny,

I suspect that's a hand-forged spike or nail, though it's so corroded that we can't be sure if we're seeing tool marks or variations in loss of iron off of the surfaces.

The irregular shank is an argument for hand-forging before cut-nail machines were in use. .

On 2022-12-25 by Jenny

Can you give me any idea how old this nail might be? Found near Dartmouth, UK.

Dartmouth UK nail (C) InspectApedia.com Jenny

On 2022-12-25 by Anonymous

On 2022-11-06 by InspectApedia (Editor)

@Neal Harvey,

The references and details at the article I suggested give some end uses for horseshoe features but nails are a bit less certain, at least so far.

Please do take a look at our discussion now moved to that page.

We welcome your further comments, suggestions, questions, critique.

On 2022-11-06 by Neal Harvey

@InspectApedia (Editor),

So it appears that the shoe is post 1835. Is there an approximate end date for use of this type of nail?

- Neal

On 2022-11-05 by InspectApedia (Editor) - horseshoe with horseshoe nails

@Neal Harvey,

Thank you for the horseshoe and horseshoe nail photos and question.

Please find your question and photo along with a lot more about the history of horseshoes and horseshoe nails now at

HORSESHOE & HORSESHOE NAIL AGE

On 2022-11-05 by Neal Harvey

My neighbor recently dug up an old horseshoe in his yard located in the suburbs of Indianapolis, and I am attempting to determine the approximate age of the piece. I have received significantly varying age ranges from a professional farrier and the Indiana State Museum.

The museum said I can narrow down the date based on the type of nails used. After some rudimentary searching on the history of nails, I find myself utterly lost. Five pictures to follow.

Old horseshoe with nails near Indianapolis (C) InspectApedia.com Neal

On 2022-09-24 by InspectApedia (Editor)

@Denise A,

Large iron spikes like that were often used in timber frame construction.

On 2022-09-24 by Denise A

I dug this up in my garden, this area has been farmed and mined for lead since Roman Times, any ideas as to what it was used for? thanks

On 2022-08-24 by InspectApedia-911 (mod)

@Flappy Raven,

Thanks, we work hard to provide trusted research so are grateful when you find it interesting or useful. Your questions, suggestions, criticism, also are helpful and welcome.

On 2022-08-24 by Flappy Raven

@InspectApedia , thanks. I'm amazed that such a simple item has inspired such curiosity in me. Your site is a trove. Looking into this, I've learnt so much about the local historical landscape. Amazing 😀

On 2022-08-24 by InspectApedia (mod) - Northamptonshire rusty nail near many historic sites

@Flappy Raven,

In essence, as you’ll read above, when estimating the age, properties, use, and history of a metal fastener like a nail, spike, or screw, we look at

1. the item itself for clues about how it was made, of what materials, and in some cases iron fibre direction that can bracket age of manufacture

2. contextual clues: what we know from surrounding materials, location, history of the area, etc.

It sounds like you have much of that physical and contextual data already to help you in learning more about your nail. Our best and most complete advice is found above.

On 2022-08-24 by Flappy Raven

Hi, for context I found this nail in the garden of my home in Northamptonshire. The house dates at 2008, but within 300m there are sites of: Roman villa; iron age forge; Anglo-Saxon moat and burials; Norman manor; several listed buildings running up to the present.

Using the guidance on this site, the best I can guess about this nail is that it is hand forged because it tapers in a single plane, appears to have a hand-formed head, and seems to have directional graining (although that could be exfoliation corrosion?). I'm fascinated, can anyone enlighten me please?

...

...

On 2022-08-22 by InspectApedia (mod)

@Matt,

Our best and most complete advice are in the steps given at the top of this page.

In essence, as you’ll read above, when estimating the age, properties, use, and history of a metal fastener like a nail, spike, or screw, we look at

1. the item itself for clues about how it was made, of what materials, and in some cases iron fibre direction that can bracket age of manufacture

2. contextual clues: what we know from surrounding materials, location, history of the area, etc.

On 2022-08-22 by Matt

Can someone help ID these old nails?

...

On 2022-08-22 by InspectApedia-911 (mod) - hand forged hasp for a lock

@Julian,

That looks like a Hand Forged hasp for a lock.

For this case, tool marks, any splits that show iron Fibre direction can map to outrageous key. Beyond these you consider context:

Surrounding context: By context I mean Information such as history of a site or building or name and (if known) age of site or building where an object that is the subject of a question has been found.

On 2022-08-21 by Julian

Found by my 8yr old daughter in the River Medway near Maidstone Kent. We are wondering what use it had and how old it is. Any help would be much appreciated. Thank you.

...

On 2022-07-16 by InspectApedia-911 (mod) - hand wrought spike from North Ayrshire Scotland beach

@Darryl, Thanks that may help fill in the area history that in turn can inform a guess about that spike.

Does look hand wrought, check out some of the clues in the article above in particular if there's a split that gives an idea of the direction of the iron fibers in the nail shaft.

You probably already know that North Ayrshire has a very long history of settlements and was a military headquarters in the 12th century and was one of Scotland's earliest capitols.

If it's bronze it's likely to be from a ship's timber.

On 2022-07-16 by Darryl

Just wondering if this can be identified. I found this nail on a beach in North Ayrshire Scotland while metal detecting. The video won’t upload, so here’s another pic with different angle

North Ayreshire Scotland hand wrought spike (C) InspectApedia.com Darryl

On 2022-07-15 by InspectApedia-911 (mod)

@Jb,

Just above on this page in the reader Q and A take a look at it the identical nail or spike found and discussed at

On 2021-03-18 by Leslie Yount ...

On 2022-07-14 by Jb

I don’t see an image for my nail I have. None of your heads match mine.


On 2022-07-11 by InspectApedia (mod) - S marking on head of a horseshoe nail -

Please find your question and our reply now at

HORSESHOE & HORSESHOE NAIL AGE

On 2022-07-11 by Tferencik

Wondering if anyone might know where and when this nail might have been made? It has a "S" on the edge of the long side of the head. Thank you

S marking on nail head (C) InspectApedia.com Tferencik

On 2022-06-01 by InspectApedia-911 (mod)

@Postmanpat,

Depending on its size that could be the remains of a nail or a spike.

On 2022-06-01 by Postmanpat

Anyone any idea what this might be? I'm assuming it's a nail of some sort? It's about 4 inches long. Found in west coast of ireland

Nail from west coast of Ireland (C) InspectApedia.com Postman Pat

On 2022-05-24 by InspectApedia-911 (mod)

@Ian MacPherson,

We're glad to assist - working together makes us smarter - or at least work smarter.

On 2022-05-24 by Ian MacPherson

@InspectApedia-911, awesome stuff. And thank you again. With what you say in your reply I have found very helpful. I will try to clean it up to see what more it reveals. So so helpful. Thank you again for taking the time and showing an interest.

On 2022-05-24 by InspectApedia-911 (mod) - Brecon Beacons National Park iron spike

@Ian MacPherson,

No worries and it's no faux pas. We're all muddling along.

Looks like that spike is too rusted to see much more, such as actual tool marks or burrs. the 6.5 cm length is most-likely but what remains of what was a longer fastener.

Considering the context in which a bit of metal such as remains of an iron spike are found is about all that's left. Location and what we know about the history of that location can offer some reasonable hypotheses about the object.

On 2022-05-24 by Ian MacPherson

@InspectApedia-911, thank you so much for taking the time to reply. It is greatly appreciated. Forgive me for any faux pas but I’m new to this forum. The location you described is correctly and the exact area is known as Ystradfellte. I’ve attached a top view of the nail too.

On 2022-05-24 by InspectApedia-911 (mod)

@Ian MacPherson,

That iron remnant is so rusted that we can't see much, but there appears to be an offset head, rectangular, and a 4-sided shank, all perhaps hand-forged. No splits that give an obvious clue to direction of iron fibres.

Was this found in the Brecon Beacons National Park, Welsh Parc Cenedlaethol Bannau Brycheiniog, national park in southern Wales?

If so you know, so this is for other readers, that the Celts were forging iron for tools & weapons in pre-roman times ca 400 BC. though I doubt that this fragment would be from so far back.

On 2022-05-24 by Ian MacPherson

Please may I ask if you can help identify this. I know it’s probably a long shot. I found it on remote farmland in the Brecon Beacons below the ground by about a foot. Thank you in advance for any assistance provided.

Brecon Beacons National Park Wales nail (C) InspectAedia.com Ian McP

On 2022-04-24 by Inspectapedia Com Moderator (mod) - modern factory cut nail in Falkland Islands

@Kimberley Greenland,

That's an interesting marking on the head of that nail. Those crimp marks across the shank of the nail just under the head tell us that this is a modern factory machine-made cut nail, not an antique

Our best and most complete advice are in the steps given at the top of this page.

In essence, as you’ll read above, when estimating the age, properties, use, and history of a metal fastener like a nail, spike, or screw, we look

1. at the item itself for clues about how it was made, of what materials, and in some cases iron fibre direction that can bracket age of manufacture

2. at contextual clues: what we know from surrounding materials, location, history of the area, etc.

On 2022-04-24 by Kimberley Greenland

Any idea of age and marking on this nail. Dug up from a river beach bank in the Falkland Islands.

. Modern nail from Falkland Islands (C) InspectApedia.com Kimberley

On 2022-03-27 by Inspectapedia Com Moderator - Spiral shanked fastener found near the Flower Pots in the Bay of Fundy

@Chris Elliott,

Notice the split along the length of the shaft - a clue to age given on the page above.

Magnetic = iron. If it wasn't detected by some equipment that may be due to a small total mass and a lot of rusted content.

Indeed when we toured the Grand Canyon, we took side hikes up into areas of Anasazi ruins where we might see a pottery shard or arrowhead. Respecting the protected area meant you could pick an object up, look at it, photograph it, but then put it back just as it was found.

In the case of your spiral-shanked spike fragments, without more information one wouldn't be sure of its age, history, pertinence to the site.

Anasazi ruins in Grand Canyon (C) Inspectapedia

On 2022-03-27 by Chris Elliott

@Inspectapedia Com Moderator, I appreciate your post and comments and time.

What I found odd at the time, when I found it the guides on the tour didn’t want me to keep it so I put it in the fold of my wallet. After getting back to the hotel it deactivated not only my room key but my bank cards.

I have always assumed it was made of certain metal , but yesterday I put it under both my metal detectors and it wasn’t detected.

I then scratched my head with confusion and then proceeded by going and getting my magnet. The magnet in fact grabbed onto the object. What material would this be made of?

On 2022-03-27 by Inspectapedia Com Moderator

@Chris Elliott,

Bay of Fundy dock in 1974 (C) Inspectapedia DJFThank you for the spiral fastener photo and question.

Spiral shanked fasteners were invented to come up with a nail or spike with good withdrawal resistance, so that may be what your fragment represents.

It's large enough in diameter to have been a dock construction spike.

I've walked out into that same area and recall that the bay has a long history of docks, shipping, etc.

For other readers, The bay's tides officially measure over 15 m (50' in height) (bayoffunditourism dot com) and when the tide is coming in over a typical six-hour period each wave simply rolls over the one before it without receding. At low tide docks around the bay are quite high.

The photo here is of a dock at the edge of the Bay of Fundy - my first bike trip back in 1974. You can see the very high wooden crib-type dock used along the shore: that's just the sort of structure in which spiral spikes might have been used.


Bay of Fundy's Flower Pot collapse For other readers, the "flower pots" to which Chris refers are described by several sources - tall sandstone configurations carved by wind and tides in the Bay of Fundy.

www.bayoffundy.com/articles/flower-pot-rocks/ and

in February of this year Hadeel Ibrahim, reporting for the CBC, described the collapse of one of the most-loved flower pot sandstone formations shown below and details in this CBC article

www.cbc.ca/news/canada/new-brunswick/flowerpot-rock-new-brunswick-attraction-1.6362819 Photo by William Hall cited by CBC

Carved from Fundy’s sandstone sea cliffs over the course of years and years, the Flower Pot Rocks – otherwise referred to as sea stacks – showcase the vertical variance of the Bay’s great tides.

Nicknamed the Flower Pot Rocks as the trees that grow at the top of the brown stacks resemble plants growing in a clay pot, sea stacks are found in a few places along Fundy’s coastline, but are most famous in Albert County, New Brunswick at Hopewell Cape.

On 2022-03-27 by Chris Elliott

This is what I found off the coast of the flower pots when tide was down in the bay of fundy.

... Bay of Fundy spiral shanked fastener (C) Inspectapedia Chris

This is what sparked my interest in what I found. This was on an episode of oak island. Very similar as to what I had found

On 2022-03-27 by Inspectapedia Com Moderator - Hand cut nail with hand forged head

@Robert Ruleau,

That may be a rather old hand-cut nail with a hand-forged head; you'll want to take a closer look at burrs, tool marks, and the clues given on the page above.

Do tell us the surrounding information: country, nearby city, surrounding conditions, structures, history, age of the building where found.

On 2022-03-27 by Robert Ruleau

Would someone say want they believe to be the age of this nail...?

Hand cut nail with hand forged head (C) Inspectapedia Robert

On 2022-03-25 by Inspectapedia Com Moderator - Identification and possible uses of found lead items

@Russ,

I agree that the items in your second photo look like nails, and look rather different than those in the first photo.

The 2nd photo bottom item has the shape and edging and head of a cut nail.

Lead nails would be very difficult to drive into anything but a fairly soft material but might have some marine use.

On 2022-03-24 by Russ

@Inspectapedia Com Moderator, Yes, there are rectangular indents in both, and they are most definitely lead based on weight and how much lead I’ve dug over the years. They are both spike square nail shape, so my gut feeling says they were made for that purpose.

I’ve dug lots of round cylinders about 3-4” long and 3/4” thick of solid lead probably for cutting and melting down for musket balls, which I’ve also dug a hundred of.

I’m fairly certain these are nails, they taper to a blunt point and everything. If you held them in your hand you’d think they were square nails. Thanks for replying! Russ

Massachusetts lead nails or weights (C) Inspectapedia Russ

On 2022-03-24 by Inspectapedia Com Moderator

@Inspectapedia Com Moderator-AC,

Thanks that's interesting. I'd add that the hollow core is a good argument for a weight. Maybe fishing indeed. If so they're probably quite old, since the use of a cast-in eye appears in some pretty old weights. Another use may have been on sash cord.

I looked at some UK collections of antique lead fishing weights and they all were fancier than these items, but, then, collectors would collect the fancier instances.

The lead worm weights I show below are fishing weights using a hollow core through which a line is threaded. These are a modern version, currently listed on eBay by S&J's Tackle Box.

The top lead item in your photo sure looks a bit like a lead bullet.

Also see

Galili, Ehud & Rosen, Baruch & Sharvit, Jacob. (2007). Fishing-gear sinkers recovered from an underwater wreckage site, off the Carmel coast, Israel. International Journal of Nautical Archaeology. 31. 182 - 201. 10.1111/j.1095-9270.2002.tb01413.x.

available also at

https://inspectapedia.com/interiors/Fishing-gear-sinkers-Carmel-coast-Israel.pdf

On 2022-03-24 by Inspectapedia Com Moderator

@Russ,

If they are, in fact, lead, then they are less likely to be nails or spikes as lead is a very soft and malleable metal. Lead was used extensively however in many other capacities in construction such as piping and roofing.

Among many other uses over the ages, other common uses were scuba diving weights and boat ballast, and of course, bullets.

Are they hollowed out? The photo seems to show a hole in the end of the two longer pieces you show.

On 2022-03-24 by Russ

Hello all, Does anyone know what 4”-5” lead square nails/spikes would have been used for? They have a nice white patina, so they’ve been in the ground for quite some time. I dug them metal detecting in Massachusetts recently.

Thanks much! Russ


On 2022-03-23 by Inspectapedia Com Moderator - Railroad spike

@Melissa,

That looks like a railroad rail/tie spike.

See details and spike history at RAILROAD SPIKES

At that page and the details above on this page are more thorough than I might re-type here. Please take a look

On 2022-03-23 by Melissa

Hi could someone help me identify this spike. It was found at a construction site by the marina in Fort Lauderdale, Florida. But the train tracks aren't very close.

It's about 6" long and seems to be made of wrought-iron instead of steel. I assumed it was a railroad spike but I cannot seem to find a way to date it. Any advise?

Thanks, Melissa

Florida iron spike (C) Inspectapedia Melissa

On 2022-03-11 by Inspectapedia Com Moderator - Fencing fastener

@Randy Driver,

We have published photos and discussions in this article series and its FAQs pages showing uses of fasteners like the one in your photo for fencing, securing wire fencing to a wood post; of course there may be other uses.

On 2022-03-10 by Randy Driver

Can someone tell me what this is and what it was used for?


On 2022-02-16 by Inspectapedia Com Moderator

@Nicole Odom,

That's a huge spike - something I'd expect to find either in construction of a dock, or perhaps in very large timbers of a wooden barge or ship.

Sure, you can follow the advice given on the page above. You're in the right place.

On 2022-02-16 by Nicole Odom

I was wondering if you could help me identify this old boat nail I'm from Florida where there are a lot of stuff like this but I've never seen one this old . Is there any ways to see how old it is? Thank you

FLorida spike (C) Inspectapedia Nicole

On 2021-05-24 by (mod) - to guess age of an Iron spike or tool found at the Inverness Canal, Scotland: add context information

Ancient iron artifacts - UK - discussed at InspectApedia@Vic,

From their size I think those large iron spikes appear in the construction of

- wharves and docks

- ships and barges where large timbers were used in the vessel construction

It's interesting to try to sort out fasteners (spikes and nails) from iron tools (sickles, adzs, punches, scrapes, axes, etc).

The online Internet Archaeology for the UK, home at https://intarch.ac.uk/journal/issue40/index.html

includes several issues that describe tools and implements; Take a look, for example at issue #40 (Issue 40 (2015)) at https://intarch.ac.uk/journal/issue40/1/3-7-10.htm

at items #162 and #164 - though these are listed under tools used in making of textiles, found at Elms Farm - a different sort of site from yours.

In this collection, Issues #40, #42, and #48 should be of particular interest when researching iron tools found in northern Scotland.

As you'll read in the article above on determining the age of old iron spikes, nails, artifacts, giving details of the context in which the object was found is essential in making a reasonable guess at the object's purpose and age.

More on the history and age of nails and similar iron artifacts in the U.K. is

at NAILS & HARDWARE, AGE RESEARCH

Example of Using Contextual Information to Guess the Age of an Old Iron Spike - Hudson River

Below is an example: this 6 1/2" spike has lost its tip - so originally it was longer, and it's square sided with an obviously hand-forged head.

But what else can we say about it? The fact that iron has rusted and broken away in rectangular segments in some areas hints that the iron fibers may be cross-shanked (an age clue we discuss above).

Iron spike age - Esopus Meadows Lighthouse nearby island (C) Daniel Friedman at InspectApedia.com

Here is the spike head

Iron spike head - Esopus Meadows Lighthouse nearby island (C) Daniel Friedman at InspectApedia.com

@Vic,

But now let's add context:

The iron spike we show above was photographed in May 2021, on a very tiny rocky island (less than 30 meters across) adjacent to a larger stone island that houses the Esopus Meadow Lighthouse, in the Hudson River south of Kingston New York.

The Hudson River has a long history as a pathway into the inner North American continent, first by native Americans, the Lenape, who called this tidal river "Shatemuc" a name that meant "the river that flows two ways" because of its strong currents that, depending on the tides 60 miles to the South, can run upstream, downstream, or in both directions simultaneously ( depending on how close you are to the shore).

The river runs North-South; my friend Steve Vermilye who grew up on the Hudson river explained that in sailing races, locals who could put together the time of day, the tide tables, the wind direction, the changing current directions between middle and sides of the estuary, and the wind changes that one encounters gaps between hills lining the west side of the river, gained a winning advantage over visitors who thought they knew how to sail.

Later European use of the Hudson as a highway to the interior began with voyages by Henry Hudson, hence the river's modern or English language name.
Upstream in Hudson New York is a village where early whaling ships were dry-docked and repaired.

Later as commerce with New York city grew, huge barges were towed or sailed up and down stream. Along shore and on some of the few islands in the Hudson River one sometimes still finds large timbers that sometimes are still partly-intact, over 100 years after the construction of barges, docks, wharves.

Finding this rough spike along the Hudson in this location where we also come across timber remains that float, catch, spend time, and sometimes then move-on at the next storm prompts a guess that this "Hudson river spike" may have been used in the construction of a ship or barge or, of course one of the old docks along the river itself.

Knowing the exact location of the find of a spike one can look at the history of the site.

The Esopus Meadows lighthouse was funded in 1831, but construction was not completed until 1838. As the piled stones where this spike was found and photographed periodically catch a beam or log that floats down the Hudson River, one can guess that the beam that brought this spike landed some time after 1838 - setting the earliest possible date for the landing but not, of course the earliest possible date for the beam and spike themselves.

Below in an excerpt of a photo by Michelle Young and that appears at untappedcities.com/2020/10/16/esopus-meadow-lighthouse-hudson-river/ we show the tiny rock pile islet in the Hudson to which I refer, found just about 10 meters upstream from the actual lighthouse and its own island.

The lighthouse itself is currently closed to the public but one can still paddle a canoe out to see the light-house from a closer vantage point and to land to have a snack on the close by islet annotated on the photo below.

Flotsam come and go from these tiny islands, probably more often than human visitors.

On 2021-05-24 by Vic

More big nails we found in the Inverness Canal, northern Scotland. Can anyone age them?

Iron nails and spikes found by magnet fishing at the Inverness Canal Scotland (C) InspectApedia.com Vic

On 2021-05-24 by (mod) - Inverness canal iron objects may be ancient iron tools

@Vic,

Those are quite interesting finds, and it's nice to be brought back to Inverness that I last visited in 1972; to me your two flattened implements look more like tools than fasteners. That they're iron is confirmed their retrieval by a magnet - i.e. not bronze.

Iron work in the Inverness area of Scotland may date back as early as 1000 BC though your find is surely not that old.

From their shape:

That larger curved implement may be a sickle or reaping hook.

The smaller flattened implement may be an adze used in wood-working.


On 2021-05-24 by Vic - Inverness Canal iron artifact identification & age

Hi we found these magnet fishing in Inverness canal, can anyone help me identify or age them? [Photo above]

They are really heavy. I thought they were ships nails. Thank you for your time.

On 2021-05-21 - by (mod) -

@Susan,

Nice; certainly looks as if it is intended to be used as a hook.

On 2021-05-21 by Susan

My husband is sanding, restoring an original board & batten door in our 1820’s home. When he removed damaged batten, he was amazed to see this curved nail. Have attached pics of front (circled) of batten and back. Have never seen anything like this before.


On 2021-04-27 by (mod) - Antique iron nail or bolt, Bull Skin Trail, Ohio river

@Corey, nice artifact, quite rusted away; square head; can't tell if the point is machine cut;

in sum for cases like this going through the key above is your best approach

In fact that square head may argue that this is a badly-rusted but modern square-headed bolt, not a nail.

On 2021-04-27 by Corey

I meant the bull skin trail, sorry for the typo. I can include dimensions and other photos if needed.

I found this old nail detecting an old farm field on the Ohio River. Historically I know that this spot is where the old buck skin trail met the river and was a common trading spot where the first colonists entered Ohio. Any thoughts on when it was made?


On 2021-04-05 - by (mod) -

@Tabbatha Coulter, that's a modern "wire" nail - as you can read in this article series, with a round shank and machine made components and diamond-shaped point. It could be an early one given the head details.

On 2021-04-05 by Tabbatha Coulter

Any idea how old this 7" nail is?

On 2021-04-11 by Meghan

Thank you. That was my suspicion. It's cool to have found such a personal item from the original homestead.

On 2021-04-05 by (mod)

@Meghan P, that looks to me as if someone made a hat or coat hanger from old nails

On 2021-04-05 by Meghan P

Hi,

I believe this is an 1800s machine cut nail that has been hand split. Wondering if this is in fact a nail and why it might have been split like this? It was found metal detecting right next to a an 1830-1860s cellar hole in the mountains of Vermont. Thank you so much! This is a fantastic resource.

On 2021-03-03 - by (mod) -

@Sarah, I agree that looks hand-wrought; take a look at the other nail-age guess suggestions in the article above.

On 2021-03-18 by (mod) - dating details on an antique 8-inch iron spike found at Twolick Country Coub, Indiana County PA

The straight sides argue for a hand-wrought spike pre-dating cut-nails but not necessarily as the age of those two types of fasteners overlapped.

See if you can see any splits or signs of vertical grain in the nail shank and review that note in the article above.

On 2021-03-18 by Leslie Yount

Can you help me identify this 8-inch spike?

Details of antique hand-forged nail, Twolick Country Club, Indiana County PA (C) InspectApedia.com Leslie Yount ... Details of antique hand-forged nail, Twolick Country Club, Indiana County PA (C) InspectApedia.com Leslie Yount ... Details of antique hand-forged nail, Twolick Country Club, Indiana County PA (C) InspectApedia.com Leslie Yount

Any help you can give me is greatly appreciated. Thank you.

Details of antique hand-forged nail, Twolick Country Club, Indiana County PA (C) InspectApedia.com Leslie Yount ... Details of antique hand-forged nail, Twolick Country Club, Indiana County PA (C) InspectApedia.com Leslie Yount



...

Continue reading at NAIL ID & AGE: HAND FORGED NAILS or select a topic from the closely-related articles below, or see the complete ARTICLE INDEX.

Or see NAILS & HARDWARE, AGE FAQs - questions & answers posted originally at this page and additional photos of old and newer nails

Or see these

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NAIL AGE DETERMINATION KEY at InspectApedia.com - online encyclopedia of building & environmental inspection, testing, diagnosis, repair, & problem prevention advice.


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