Guardrail & Handrail Strength Requirements & Testing

GUARDRAIL & HANDRAIL STRENGTH & Testing Requirements
Questions & Answers about the strengtrh & strength testing requirements for guardrails & handrails in or at buildings
References

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Guard rail & handrail strength requirements & strength testing requirements specified in various building codes & standards. This article provides details about standards, requirements & testing procedures for handrailings & guardrailings in or on the exterior of buildings. Our page top photo shows an odd guardrail along a tiny walking space - the DIY owner-installer never considered that someone (a housepainter) might actually need the railing to be secure and functional. The result was a serious injury. See GUARDRAILS on BALCONIES, DECKS, LANDINGS for details about guardrails and see HANDRAILS & HANDRAILINGS for details about handrails along stairs. Also see STAIR RAILS, STAIR GUARDS.

Guardrail, Stair Rail & Handrail Strength Requirements - the 200 pound load criteron & others

In their 2001 study of an unsafe wooden deck railing assembly, Barnett and Switalski point out that the first American safety standard to address railing design (except residential railings) was the American Standard Safety Code for Floor and Wall Openings, Railings and Toe Boards, ASA A12-1932. [45][46]

That study and other sources cite an array of standards that address some but most-likely not all of the considerations in building or testing a safe guardrail or deck rail system. By 1967 in the U.S. there were national standards for railings and guardrails, and by 1973 ANSI standards were available.

The railing must be strong enough to resist horizontal loads from people leaning on it.

The 2000 IRC (IRC Table R301.5) and other typical building codes requires that a guardrail or a handdrail be able to resist a 200-pound concentrated load applied along the top in any direction, while some local codes still in effect specify a smaller load of 20 pounds per linear foot.

After an above-ground swimming pool was removed, the owners continued to use the deck in our photo (left). Deer netting was installed across the open edge of the deck - and it worked fine until someone fell thorough it. The torn remains of the deer netting can be seen on the left side of this photograph.

Continuing from from Best Practices Guide to Residential Construction:

Under the IRC, the infill or balusters must resist a concentrated horizontal load of 50 pounds applied to a square foot area. The baluster requirement is easily met with standard fastening techniques, but meeting the IRC guardrail requirement is difficult without adding steel hardware. The majority of residential decks, which rely on notched posts lag-screwed into the band joist, do not meet the 200-pound requirement.

Watch out: at least some of the standards & procedures specified for testing handrailing & guardrailing or stair rail strength focus on static strength testing. Dynamic testing such as the forces exerted when a person is falling and grabs onto a railing may be important for further consideration. An additional warning from ASTM explains how you can or cannot use the standards summaries listed here and in further detail at the ASTM website. Quoting: This abstract is a brief summary of the referenced standard. It is informational only and not an official part of the standard; the full text of the standard itself must be referred to for its use and application. ASTM does not give any warranty express or implied or make any representation that the contents of this abstract are accurate, complete or up to date. [1]

Guardrailing strength specifications & testing procedures & standards

General references

ASTM F 1679 Standard Test Method for Using a Variable Incidence Tribometer (VIT)
ASTM E 2126 Standard Test Methods for Cyclic (Reversed) Load Test for Shear Resistance of Vertical Elements of the Lateral Force Resisting Systems for Buildings
Manual for the Inspection of Residential Wood Decks and Balconies, by Cheryl Anderson, Frank Woeste (Forest Products Society), & Joseph Loferski, October 2003, ISBN-13: 978-1892529343, $39.00 at Amazon.com or at the InspectAPediaBookstore [Developed by wood science researchers at Virginia Tech studying wood deck structural connectors.]

Glass & Laminated Glass Railings, Guardrails: strength & testing codes & standards

ASTM E2353 - 06 Standard Test Methods for Performance of Glass in Permanent Glass Railing Systems, Guards, and Balustrade
Partial quote from the ASTM abstract:
These test methods are intended to provide information from which applicable design data can be derived for the performance of glass in rails, guards and balustrade systems as infill panels that are fastened to concrete, masonry, wood and metal as well as related products, and to the performance of glass as the structural element of the rail, guard, or balustrade system.
Specification E 329 abd Practice E 699 are standards that assist the user of these test methods to apply appropriate procedures and methods to ensure a quality result is provided.
"Use of Laminated Glass in Glass Railing Systems", Glass Informational Bulletin GANA LD 09-0311, March 2011, Glass Association of North America, 800 SW Jackson Street, Suite 1500 Topeka, KS 66612 (785) 271-0208 Fax: (785) 271-0166 www.glasswebsite.com, retrieved 02/04/2013 [LD 09-0311 - Use of Laminated Glass in Glass Railing Systems.pdf]

In-Situ Testing of Guardrails & Handrails

[Additional handrail test requirement citations wanted - Contact Us]
Florida: "Checklist #0460 for the approval of: Railings (Stairs & Balcony)", Miami-Dade County, Florida Building and Neighborhood Compliance Department Product Control Section, Balustrade & Plastic Railing
Perpendicular to railing load test, with loading per conditions specified in section 1618.4.6 of the Florida Building Code, on a minimum 8-ft section and 3 posts. Test load shall be 2 times the design load, with minimum 80% recovery.Internet mail address: bldgdept@miamidade.gov Homepage: http://www.miamidade.gov/building - Web search 02/04/2013, original source: http://www.miamidade.gov/building/library/checklists/railings.pdf, copy on file as FL_MIami_Railings.pdf
Florida 2010 building code,
- Section 504 STAIRWAYS "All steps on a flight of stairs shall have uniform riser heights and uniform tread depths. Risers shall be 4 inches (100 mm) high minimum and 7 inches (180 mm) high maximum. Treads shall be 11 inches (280 mm) deep minimum. Open risers are not permitted." etc.
- SECTION 1714 IN-SITU LOAD TESTS . websearch 02/04/2013, original source: http://www2.iccsafe.org/states/florida_codes/ [handrails are not explicitly cited here]
Section 1012 - Handrails, [begins p. 84] Florida Building Code Handbook, State Requirements for New Educational Facilities Construction, Florida Department of Education 2007, retrieved 02/04/2013, original source: http://www.fldoe.org/. This edition of the Florida Building Code handbook is a modification of the original 2004 Florida Building Code Handbook that was developed for the Department of Education

Metal Railings, Guardrails, Handrails testing standards

ASTM E894 - 88(2010) Standard Test Method for Anchorage of Permanent Metal Railing Systems and Rails for Buildings
ASTM E935 - 00(2006) Standard Test Methods for Performance of Permanent Metal Railing Systems and Rails for Buildings.
Partial quote from the ASTM abstract:
These test methods are intended to provide information from which applicable design data can be derived for the performance of metal railing systems and rails installed and fastened to structural elements of concrete, masonry, wood, and metal as well as related products.
- 1.1 These test methods cover procedures to be followed in testing the performance of permanent metal railing systems (guard, stair, and ramp-rail systems) and rails (hand, wall, grab, and transfer rails) installed in and for agricultural, assembly, commercial, educational, industrial, institutional, recreational, and residential buildings.
- 1.2 These test methods are applicable to such railing systems and rails having major structural components made of metal, with their secondary components made of metal or other materials such as wood, plastic, and glass.
- 1.3 These test methods can be used to determine whether permanent metal railing systems and rails comply with anticipated performance requirements of the applicable specifications, codes, and standards, such as those described in Specification E 985.
ASTM E985 - 00(2006) Standard Specification for Permanent Metal Railing Systems and Rails for Buildings
Partial quote from the ASTM abstract:
This specification covers permanent metal railing systems (such as guard, stair, and ramp-rail systems) and rails (such as hand, wall, grab, and transfer rails) for use in agricultural, assembly, commercial, educational, industrial, institutional, recreational, and residential buildings. Also covered in this specification are basic design requirements and considerations, and minimum criteria for load and deflections; however, it does not cover design criteria for specific field conditions. Railing systems and rails shall be manufactured with major structural components made of metal and secondary components made of metal, wood, plastics, or glass, and shall withstand forces that may potentially be exerted by building users. Tests for static loading and deflection shall be performed and shall conform to the requirements specified.
- .1 This specification covers permanent metal railing systems (guard, stair, and ramp-rail systems) and rails (hand, wall, grab, and transfer rails) installed in and for agricultural, assembly, commercial, educational, industrial, institutional, recreational, and residential buildings.
- 1.2 This specification is intended to be applied to permanent metal railing systems for buildings and to such railing systems and rails having major structural components made of metal, with their secondary components made of metal or other materials such as wood, plastics, and glass.
- 1.3 This specification considers that today's and tomorrow's overall outlook is based on the health and safety of all potential users of buildings. The criteria incorporated in this specification provide for normal and anticipated building uses, but not for abuses for which the building and its components are not designed.
- 1.4 This specification establishes basic minimum requirements and criteria that lead to satisfactory products under normal use conditions and does not give consideration to design criteria for specific field conditions, the establishment of which is the prerogative and responsibility of the designer, specification writer, and code agencies.
ASTM F 2408 Standard Specification for Ornamental Fences Employing Galvanized Steel Tubular Pickets

Plastic Railings, Guardrails, Handrails testing standards

ASTM F1092 - 04(2010) Standard Specification for Fiberglass (GRP) Pultruded Open-Weather Storm and Guard, Square Railing Systems
Partial quote from the ASTM abstract:
This specification provides the material requirements, construction, installation, and testing requirements for open-weather deck, storm-and-guard, fiberglass square railing systems.
- 1.1 This specification provides the material requirements, construction, installation, and testing requirements for open-weather deck, storm-and-guard, fiberglass square railing systems. Components are to be manufactured by the pultrusion process.
- 1.2 The values stated in inch-pound units are to be regarded as standard. The values given in parentheses are mathematical conversions to SI units that are provided for information only and are not considered standard.
- 1.3 The following safety hazards caveat pertains only to the test methods portion, Section 9, of this specification: This standard does not purport to address all of the safety concerns, if any, associated with its use. It is the responsibility of the user of this standard to establish appropriate safety and health practices and determine the applicability of regulatory limitations prior to use.

Wood-Plastic Composite Railings, Guardrails, Handrails testing standards

ASTM D7032 - 10a Standard Specification for Establishing Performance Ratings for Wood-Plastic Composite Deck Boards and Guardrail Systems (Guards or Handrails).
Partial quote from the ASTM abstract:
This specification presents the standard procedures for establishing the performance rating of wood-plastic composite (WPC) deck boards and guardrail systems (guards or handrails). The purpose of this specification is to establish the basis for code recognition of these products or systems in exterior applications where combustible construction is allowed. ... In the same manner, guards and handrails are additionally analyzed through concentrated load tests, and one- and two-family dwelling requirements.

1.1 This specification covers the procedures to establish a performance rating for wood-plastic composite (WPC) deck boards.
1.2 Deck boards, guards, and handrails covered by this specification are permitted to be of any code compliant shape and thickness (solid or non-solid).

CCMC Technical Guide for PVC Guard Systems

Wood Railings, Guardrails, Handrails, testing & strength standards

ANSI: “American Standard Safety Code for Floor and Wall Openings, Railings, and Toe Boards,” AS A12 -1932. New York: American Standards Association, approved May 3, 1932.
ANSI “USA Standard Safety Requirements for Floor and Wall Openings, Railings, and Toe Boards,” USAS A12.1-1967. New York: American National Standard Institute, approved March 17, 1967.
ANSI “American National Standard Safety Requirements for Floor and Wall Openings, Railings, and Toeboards,” ANSI A12.1-1973. New York: American National Standards Institute, approved March 15, 1973.
BOCA “Special Loads,” Section 1615.0, The BOCA National Building Code/ 1993. Country Club Hills, IL: Building Officials & Code Administration International, Inc. 1993, pp. 185 – 186.
USAS “Requirements for Fixed Industrial Stairs,” USAS A64.1-1968. New York: American National Standards Institute, approved February 16, 1968.
OSHA “Fall Protection,” 29 CFR 1926.451(g)(4)(vii). Washington, D.C., Occupational Safety and Health Administration; Chapter XVII, 7/1/99 edition.
ICC-ES AC174 Acceptance Criteria for Deck Board Span Ratings and Guardrail Systems (Guards and Handrails)
ICC-ES AC273 Acceptance Criteria for Handrails and Guards
Plans for Crash-Tested Wood Bridge Railings for Concrete Decks, U.S. Forest Products Laboratory, web search 02/04/2013, original source http://www.fpl.fs.fed.us /documnts/fplgtr/fplgtr108 /fplgtr108.pdf, copy on file as Wood_Rail_FPL_fplgtr108.pdf
Also see NCHRP. 1981. Recommended procedures for the safety performance evaluation of highway appurtenances. NCHRP Rep. 230. Washington, DC: National Research Council, Transportation Research Board, National Cooperative Highway Research Program.

Railing & Handrail Strength & Failure Studies

Ralph L. Barnett* and William G. Switalski, "Case Study The Safety of Wood Railings", Triodyne Inc. Consulting Engineers & Scientists – Safety Philosophy & Technology 5950 West Touhy Avenue Niles, IL 60714-4610 (847) 677-4730 FAX: (847) 647-2047 e-mail: infoserv@triodyne.com www.triodyne.com, web search 02/04/2013, original source: http://www.triodyne.com/SAFETY~1/Sb_v18n1.pdf, copy on file as BarnettSwitalski_Railing_Study.pdf.

Abstract: When the handrail assembly broke away from a wooden deck attached to the rear of a private residence, the victim fell 12 feet to the lawn and sustained injuries rendering him a quadriplegic. Although the local building code required the handrail to withstand a 200 lb load applied in any direction at any point on the handrail, no guidance was given to the do-it-yourselfer who built the deck and railings to assure him that the final construction would produce an acceptable railing. The authors conducted testing and a statistical analysis of railing strength comparing the construction method used by the builder of the accident railing to another construction method utilizing a commercially available handrail bracket. The test program demonstrates that the strength of the wood used to build handrails can vary greatly and that a controlled method of building a handrail is necessary to ensure the integrity of a product intended to be consumer customized and assembled. It is necessary to have acceptable methods of railing construction because the failure of a railing joint can be life threatening. This is especially true in the consumer/do-it-yourself market where the designer/builder is not necessarily knowledgeable about building codes or construction methods.
Joseph Loferski and Frank Woeste, P.E., "Strong Rail-Post Connections for Wooden Decks", The Journal of Light Construction (JLC), February 2005, web search 02/04/2013, original source http://www.dickseibert.com/Woeste.pdf, copy on file as Woeste_Rail_test.pdf

Frequently Asked Questions (FAQs) about stair landing, porch, deck, or balcony guard railings

Question: stair landing platform size correction

In your sketch entitled "Handrails and guards" of 2011, the accompanying text (Stair landing minimum size in direction of travel (<=36"))incorrectly uses the "<" ""less than" arrow instead of the ">" "greater than arrow". - David Gillis 9/21/2011

Reply:

David Gillis

Thanks for the careful reading - I have fixed the stair landing platform size indicator you mentioned to show that it should extend equal to or more than 36" in the direction of travel. We really appreciate careful editing. More eyes - always better.

Question: limits of projection of handrailing into the stair walking space

I want to install a hand rail on an exterior staircase. Is there a code that will prevent me from installing the hand rail 6" out side of the staircase? - Joe Garcia 10/28/2011

Reply:

Joe Garcia:

The stair codes limit the distance that a handrailing should project into the walking space.

Railings should not project into the required width of the stairway by more than 4.5" at or below the handrail height above the stairs.

Question: do I need railings on attic stairs or at stair top?

I am trying to find out if rails should be in attics - Anon 8/7/2012

Reply:

Anon:

An attic, that is an area not considered living space, in some jurisdictions has different rules for stairs and rails - depending on the local and higher level code authorities in your area.

But in any case, if there is an attic stairway with actual stairs, that is, not just a pull-down ladder or an open hatch and no stairs, and considering that attic access stairs are often steeper than recommended between occupied floors, for safety it would make perfect sense to be sure there was a railing along the stairway and also on the attic floor, a safety railing & balusters surrounding the stair top so someone in the attic doesn't step backwards and fall down the stair opening.

...

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Carson, Dunlop & Associates Ltd., 120 Carlton Street Suite 407, Toronto ON M5A 4K2. (416) 964-9415 1-800-268-7070 info@carsondunlop.com. The firm provides professional home inspection services & home inspection education & publications. Alan Carson is a past president of ASHI, the American Society of Home Inspectors. Thanks to Alan Carson and Bob Dunlop, for permission for InspectAPedia to use text excerpts from The Home Reference Book & illustrations from The Illustrated Home. Carson Dunlop Associates' home inspection education products include
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Best Practices Guide to Residential Construction, by Steven Bliss. John Wiley & Sons, 2006. ISBN-10: 0471648361, ISBN-13: 978-0471648369, Hardcover: 320 pages, available from Amazon.com and also Wiley.com. See our book review of this publication.
Eric Galow, Galow Homes, Lagrangeville, NY. Mr. Galow can be reached by email: ericgalow@gmail.com or by telephone: 914-474-6613. Mr. Galow specializes in residential construction including both new homes and repairs, renovations, and additions.
[1] ASTM web search 02/04/2013, original source: http://www.astm.org/
[2] §3209. Standard Guardrails, California Building Code, provides description of how guard rails should be constructed. Web search 09/02/2011,original source: www.dir.ca.gov/title8/3209.html
[3] "The Elimination of Unsafe Guardrails, a Progress Report," Elliott O. Stephenson, Building Standards, March-April 1993
[4] "Are Functional Handrails Within Our Grasp" Jake Pauls, Building Standards, January-February 1991
[5] Access Ramp building codes:
- UBC 1003.3.4.3
- BOCA 1016.3
- ADA 4.8.2
- IBC 1010.2
[6] Access Ramp Standards:
- ADA (Americans with Disabilities Act), Public Law 101-336. 7/26/90 is very often cited by other sources for good design of stairs and ramps etc. even where disabled individuals are not the design target.
- ANSI A117.4 Accessible and Usable buildings and Facilities (earlier version was incorporated into the ADA)
- ASTM F 1637, Standard Practice for Safe Walking Surfaces, (Similar to the above standard
[7] The Circular Staircase, Mary Roberts Rinehart
[8] Construction Drawings and Details, Rosemary Kilmer
[9] Falls and Related Injuries: Slips, Trips, Missteps, and Their Consequences, Lawyers & Judges Publishing, (June 2002), ISBN-10: 0913875430 ISBN-13: 978-0913875438
"Falls in the home and public places are the second leading cause of unintentional injury deaths in the United States, but are overlooked in most literature. This book is unique in that it is entirely devoted to falls. Of use to primary care physicians, nurses, insurance adjusters, architects, writers of building codes, attorneys, or anyone who cares for the elderly, this book will tell you how, why, and when people will likely fall, what most likely will be injured, and how such injuries come about. "
[10] Mobile Home Inspections common defects unique to factory built housing, inspection methods
[11] The National Institute of Standards and Technology, NIST (nee National Bureau of Standards NBS) is a US government agency - see www.nist.gov
- "A Parametric Study of Wall Moisture Contents Using a Revised Variable Indoor Relative Humidity Version of the "Moist" Transient Heat and Moisture Transfer Model [copy on file as/interiors/MOIST_Model_NIST_b95074.pdf ] - ", George Tsongas, Doug Burch, Carolyn Roos, Malcom Cunningham; this paper describes software and the prediction of wall moisture contents. - PDF Document from NIS
[12] Slips, Trips, Missteps and Their Consequences, Second Edition, Gary M. Bakken, H. Harvey Cohen,A. S. Hyde, Jon R. Abele, ISBN-13: 978-1-933264-01-1 or ISBN 10: 1-933264-01-2, available from the publisher, Lawyers ^ Judges Publishing Company,Inc., www.lawyersandjudges.com sales@lawyersandjudges.com and also from the InspectAPedia Bookstore (Amazon.com)
[13] Slips, Trips, Missteps and Their Consequences, Gary M. Bakken, H. Harvey Cohen, Jon R. Abele, Alvin S. Hyde, Cindy A. LaRue, Lawyers and Judges Publishing; ISBN-10: 1933264012 ISBN-13: 978-1933264011
[14] The Stairway Manufacturers' Association, (877) 500-5759, provides a pictorial guide to the stair and railing portion of the International Residential Code. [copy on file as http://www.stairways.org/pdf/2006%20Stair%20IRC%20SCREEN.pdf ] -
[15] How to Clean Moldy Wood Framing & Sheathing How to clean/seal mold from/on exposed lumber or plywood subfloor or roof sheathing indoors - some suggestions based on our field and laboratory research
[16] Mold-Resistant Building Practices, advice from an expert on how to prevent mold after a building flood and how to prevent mold growth in buildings by selection of building materials and by anti-mold construction details.
[17] Steps and Stairways, Cleo Baldon & Ib Melchior, Rizzoli, 1989.
[18] The Staircase, Ann Rinaldi
[19] Common Sense Stairbuilding and Handrailing, Fred T. Hodgson
[20] The Art of Staircases, Pilar Chueca
[21] Building Stairs, by pros for pros, Andy Engel
[22] A Simplified Guide to Custom Stairbuilding, George R. Christina
[23] Basic Stairbuilding, Scott Schuttner
[24] The Staircase (two volumes), John Templar, Cambridge: the MIT Press, 1992
[25] The Staircase: History and Theories, John Templar, MIT Press 1995
[26] Steps and Stairways, Cleo Baldon & Ib Melchior, Rizzoli, 1989.
[27] "The Dimensions of Stairs", J. M. Fitch et al., Scientific American, October 1974.
[28] Stair & Walkway Standards for Slipperiness or Coefficient of Friction (COF) or Static Coefficient of Friction (SCOF)
- ANSI A1264.2
- ANSI B101
- ASTM D-21, and ASTM D2047
- UL-410 (similar to ASTM D-21)
- NSFI 101-B (National Floor Safety Institute)
- NSFI Walkway Auditing Guideline (WAG) Ref. 101-A& 101-B (may appear as ANSI B101.0) sets rules for measuring walkway slip resist
- OSHA - (Dept of Labor CFR 1910.22 does not specify COF and pertains to workplaces) but recognizes the need for a "qualified person" to evaluate walkway slipperiness
- ADA (relies on the ANSI and ASTM standards)
[29] A. Sacher, International Symposium on Slip Resistance: The Interface of Man, Footwear, and Walking Surfaces, Journal of Testing and Evaluation (JTE), ISSN: 1945-7553, January 1997 [more focused on slipperiness of polished surfaces
[30] Algae is widely recognized as a slippery surface - a Google web search for "how slippery is algae on steps" produced more than 15,000 results on 8/29/12)
[31] Slipperiness of algae on walking surfaces, warning, Royal Horticultural Society, retrieved 8/29/2012, original source: http://apps.rhs.org.uk/advicesearch/profile.aspx?pid=418
[32] Slipperiness of algae: "Watch your step, wet rocks and algae are slippery" Oregon State University warning 1977 retrieved 8/29/2012, original source: http://www.worldcat.org/title/watch-your-step-wet-rocks-and-algae-are-slippery/oclc/663683915
[33] Coefficient of friction of algae on surfaces [like stair treads]: Delphine Gourdon, Qi Lin, Emin Oroudjev, Helen Hansma, Yuval Golan, Shoshana Arad, and Jacob Israelachvili, "Adhesion and Stable Low Friction Provided by a Subnanometer-Thick Monolayer of a Natural Polysaccharide", Langmuir, 2008 pp 1534-1540, American Chemical Society, retrieved 8/29/2012,
Abstract: Using a surface forces apparatus, we have investigated the adhesive and lubrication forces of mica surfaces separated by a molecularly thin, subnanometer film of a high-molecular-weight (2.3 MDa) anionic polysaccharide from the algae Porphyridium sp. adsorbed from aqueous solution. The adhesion and friction forces of the confined biopolymer were monitored as a function of time, shearing distance, and driving velocity under a large range of compressive loads (pressures). Although the thickness of the dilute polysaccharide was <1 nm, the friction was low (coefficient of friction = 0.015), and no wear was ever observed even at a pressure of 110 atm over 3 decades of velocity, so long as the shearing distances were less than twice the contact diameter. Atomic force microscopy in solution shows that the biopolymer is able to adsorb to the mica surface but remains mobile and easily dragged upon shearing. The adhesion (adsorption) of this polysaccharide even to negatively charged surfaces, its stable low friction, its robustness (high-load carrying capacity and good wear protection), and the weak (logarithmic) dependence of the friction force on the sliding velocity make this class of polyelectrolytes excellent candidates for use in water-based lubricant fluids and as potential additives to synovial fluid in joints and other biolubricating fluids. The physical reasons for the remarkable tribological properties of the ultrathin polysaccharide monolayer are discussed and appear to be quite different from those of other polyelectrolytes and proteins that act as thick “polymer brush” layers.
[34] Jinjin Li, Yuhong Liu, Jianbin Luo, Pengxiao Liu, and Chenhui Zhang, "Excellent Lubricating Behavior of Brasenia schreberi Mucilage" Langmuir 2012 28 (20), 7797-7802
[35] Jason R. Stokes, Lubica Macakova, Agnieszka Chojnicka-Paszun, Cornelis G. de Kruif, and Harmen H. J. de Jongh, "Lubrication, Adsorption, and Rheology of Aqueous Polysaccharide Solutions, Langmuir 2011 27 (7), 3474-3484
[36] "Coefficients of Friction for Ice", The Physics Factbook™, Glenn Elert, Ed., retrieved 8/29/12, original source: http://hypertextbook.com/facts/2004/GennaAbleman.shtml
[37] "Coefficients of Friction for Ice", The University of the State of New York Reference Tables for Physical Setting/Physics. New York: The State Education Department, 2002. Op. Cit.
[38] Serway Physics for Scientists and Engineers 4th edition (p. 126.)
[39] "How Slippery Is It", retrieved 8/29/12, original source http://www.icebike.org/Articles/howslippery.htm
[40] John E. Hunter, "Friction Values", The Source, Society of Accident Reconstructionists, Winter 1998. Study of frictional values of car tires involved in collisions on snow or ice covered roadways.
[41] Frictional Coefficients of some Common Materials and Materials Combinations, The Engineering Toolbox, retrieved 8/29/2012, original source: http://www.engineeringtoolbox.com/friction-coefficients-d_778.html [copy on file as Friction and Coefficients of Friction.pdf ]
[42] Stairways and Ladders, A Guide to OSHA Rules, OSHA, U.S. Department of Labor, 3124-12R 2003 - Web Search 05/28/2010 original source: http://www.osha.gov/Publications/osha3124.pdf. OSHA regulations govern standards in the construction industry and in the workforce Quoting from OSHA whose focus is on workplace safety and so excludes discussion of falls and stair-falls in private homes:

OSHA estimates that there are 24,882 injuries and as many as 36 fatalities per year due to falls from stairways and ladders used in construction. Nearly half of these injuries are serious enough to require time off the job--11,570 lost workday injuries and 13,312 non-lost workday injuries occur annually due to falls from stairways and ladders used in construction. These data demonstrate that work on and around ladders and stairways is hazardous. More importantly, they show that compliance with OSHA's requirements for the safe use of ladders and stairways could have prevented many of these injuries. -osha.gov/doc/outreachtraining/htmlfiles/stairlad.html
[43] International Building Code, Stairway Provisions, Section 1009: Stairways and Handrails, retrieved 8/29/12, original source: http://www.amezz.com/ibc-stairs-code.htm [copy on file as IBC Stairs Code.pdf]
[44] Model Building Code, Chapter 10, Means of Egress, retrieved 8/29/12, original source: http://www2.iccsafe.org/states/newjersey/NJ_Building/PDFs/NJ_Bldg_Chapter10.pdf, [copy on file as NJ_Bldg_Chapter10.pdf] adopted, for example by New Jersey. International Code Council, 500 New Jersey Avenue, NW, 6th Floor, Washington, DC 20001, Tel: 800-786-4452
[45] Ralph L. Barnett* and William G. Switalski, "Case Study and a Senior Mechanical Engineer, Triodyne Inc., Niles, IL (respectively. Contact information: Triodyne Inc. Consulting Engineers & Scientists – Safety Philosophy & Technology 5950 West Touhy Avenue Niles, IL 60714-4610 (847) 677-4730 FAX: (847) 647-2047 e-mail: infoserv@triodyne.com www.triodyne.com, web search 02/04/2013, original source: http://www.triodyne.com/SAFETY~1/Sb_v18n1.pdf, copy on file as BarnettSwitalski_Railing_Study.pdf.
[46] “American Standard Safety Code for Floor and Wall Openings, Railings, and Toe Boards,” AS A12 -1932. New York: American Standards Association, approved May 3, 1932.
[47] “USA Standard Safety Requirements for Floor and Wall Openings, Railings, and Toe Boards,” USAS A12.1-1967. New York: American National Standard Institute, approved March 17, 1967.
[48] “American National Standard Safety Requirements for Floor and Wall Openings, Railings, and Toeboards,” ANSI A12.1-1973. New York: American National Standards Institute, approved March 15, 1973.
[49] “Requirements for Fixed Industrial Stairs,” USAS A64.1-1968. New York: American National Standards Institute, approved February 16, 1968.
[50] “Fall Protection,” 29 CFR 1926.451(g)(4)(vii). Washington, D.C., Occupational Safety and Health Administration; Chapter XVII, 7/1/99 edition.
[51] “Special Loads,” Section 1615.0, The BOCA National Building Code/ 1993. Country Club Hills, IL: Building Officials & Code Administration International, Inc. 1993, pp. 185 – 186.

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Our recommended books about building & mechanical systems design, inspection, problem diagnosis, and repair, and about indoor environment and IAQ testing, diagnosis, and cleanup are at the InspectAPedia Bookstore. Also see our Book Reviews - InspectAPedia.

The Home Reference Book - the Encyclopedia of Homes, Carson Dunlop & Associates, Toronto, Ontario, 25th Ed., 2012, is a bound volume of more than 450 illustrated pages that assist home inspectors and home owners in the inspection and detection of problems on buildings. The text is intended as a reference guide to help building owners operate and maintain their home effectively. Field inspection worksheets are included at the back of the volume. Special Offer: For a 10% discount on any number of copies of the Home Reference Book purchased as a single order. Enter INSPECTAHRB in the order payment page "Promo/Redemption" space. InspectAPedia.com editor Daniel Friedman is a contributing author.

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Best Practices Guide to Residential Construction, by Steven Bliss. John Wiley & Sons, 2006. ISBN-10: 0471648361, ISBN-13: 978-0471648369, Hardcover: 320 pages, available from Amazon.com and also Wiley.com. See our book review of this publication.
Decks and Porches, the JLC Guide to, Best Practices for Outdoor Spaces, Steve Bliss (Editor), The Journal of Light Construction, Williston VT, 2010 ISBN 10: 1-928580-42-4, ISBN 13: 978-1-928580-42-3, available from Amazon.com
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Guardrail, Stair Rail & Handrail Strength Requirements - the 200 pound load criteron & others

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